^rrd 


BERKELEV 

LIBRARY 

UNIVtSSITY    Of 
CMIFORNIA 


■ 

^ 

^^ 

SHIPS   LIBRARY. 

U.  S.  S.  tjASSACHUSETTS 

4—1759 

DECISIVE    BATTLES 


WATERLOO 


THE    MOST   IMPORTANT   MILITARY   EVENTS   FROM 


1815    TO    1887 


THOMAS  W.  KNOX 

AUTHOR    OF 

'Marco  Polo  for  Boys  and  Girls,"  "Life  of  Robert   Fulton  and  a  History  of  Steam 

Navigation,"  "  The  Boy  Travellers  in   the  Far  East,"  five  vols.  ;  "  The  Boy 

Travellers   in   South   America,"   "  The    Boy  Travellers   in    the   Russian 

Empire,"  "The  Young  Nimrods,"  two  vols.  ;   "  The  Voyage  of 

the  Vivian,"  "Overland  through  Asia,"  "  Backsheesh," 

"Underground,"  "John,"  "Camp-Fire  and  Cotton 

Field,"  "  How   to   Travel,"   "  The  Pocket 

Guide  around  the  World,"  etc.,  etc. 


ILLUSTRATED 

THIRD    EDITION,    REVISED    AND    WITH    INDEX 

NINTH  IMPRESSION 


190^4 


G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 
NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 

a:be  "ff^nlcl^erbocfter  ipress 
1902 


V-    'M 


^\e^. )  ^  >S  A  A/ 


DECISIVE    BATTLES 


WATERLOO 


tup:  most  important  military  events  from 


1815    TO    1887 


THOMAS  W.  KNOX 

AUTHOR    or 

'Marco  Polo  for  Boys  and  Girls,"  "Life  of  Robert   Fulton  and  a  History  of  Steam 

Navigation,"   "  The  Boy  Travellers   in   the   Far  East,"  five   vols.  ;  "  The   Boy 

Travellers   in   South  America,"   "  The    Boy  Travellers   in    the   Russian 

Empire,"  "The  Young  Nimrods,"  two  vols.  ;   "  The  Voyage  of 

the  Vivian,"  "Overland  through  Asia,"  "  Backsheesh," 

"Underground,"  "John,"  "Camp-Fire  and  Cotton 

Field,"  "  How   to  Travel,"  "  The  Pocket 

Guide  around  the  World,"  etc.,  etc. 


illustrated 

THIRD    EDITION,    REVISED    AND    WITH    INDEX 

NINTH  IMPRESSION 


19084 


G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 
NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 

?rbc  Iknlcherbochcr  press 
1902 


h^  fp 


COPYRIGHT  Br 

G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 


Ube  1kn(cl;erbocl!er  g>ress,  tHzv)  if^ocbeHe,  tPi,  y* 


036/ 

K7  ' 


PREFACE. 


In  1852  Professor  (afterwards  Sir  Edward)  Creasy  pub- 
lished a  book,  which  is  Avell  described  by  its  title,  "  The 
Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World,  from  Marathon  to 
Waterloo."  Professor  Creasy's  work  has  passed  through 
many  editions,  and  has  long  since  become  a  standard 
authority  among  historical  students.  In  the  belief  that 
the  decisive  battles  since  Waterloo  are  worthy  of  record 
in  a  similar  form,  the  author  has  ventured  to  prepare  the 
volume,  of  which  these  lines  are  the  preface. 

Creasy  justly  says  :  "  It  is  probable,  indeed,  that  no 
two  historical  inquirers  would  entirely  agree  in  their  lists 
of  the  decisive  battles  of  the  world,"  and  it  is  of  course 
still  less  likely  that  any  unanimity  of  opinion  could 
be  found  among  historical  students  of  the  present  day 
in  the  selection  of  the  decisive  battles  since  181 5.  There 
is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  concerning  the  battles 
which  assured  English  supremacy  in  India ;  the  battles 
which  decided  the  result  of  the  civil  war  in  America ;  and 
concerning  those  which  have  repeatedly  changed  the 
political  map  of  the  valley  of  the  Danube  and  the  regions 
contiguous  to  it.  Several  of  the  twenty-five  battles  which 
are  described  in  this  volume  could  hardly  be  included  if 
the  list  were  subjected  to  the  crucial  test  of  Hallam  in 
his  comments  upon  the  victory  of  Charles  Martel,  between 
Tours  and  Poictiers,  over  the  Saracens.  In  speaking  of 
that  battle  Hallam  says:  "It  may  justly  be  reckoned 
among  those  few  battles  of  which  a  contrary'  event  would 
have  essentially  varied  the  drama  of  the  world  in  all  its 
subsequent  scenes."     Thus  while  the  victory  of  the  Eng- 


564 


IV  PREFACE. 

lish  at  Prome  in  Burmah,  described  in  the  second  chapter 
of  this  book,  was  "  the  beginning  of  the  end  "  of  the  Bur- 
mese kingdom,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  their  complete 
defeat  would  have  forever  kept  them  outside  the  bounda- 
ries of  that  semi-barbarous  country.  It  might  have 
delayed  the  conquest  for  several,  perhaps  many,  years, 
but  would  not  have  prevented  it.  Similar  comments 
might  be  made  concerning  the  capture  of  Silistria  by  the 
Russians  in  1829,  the  battle  of  Gujerat  twenty  years 
later,  the  battle  of  Sedan  in  1870,  and  the  conquest  of 
Khiva  in  1873.  The  American  Civil  War  will  doubtless 
lead  to  criticism  of  the  battles  selected  as  decisive  ;  it 
would  be  difficult  to  find  in  any  group  of  the  men  who 
participated  in  that  gigantic  struggle  perfect  accord  of 
opinion  as  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  battles  that 
were  fought  between  1861  and  1865  for  the  preservation 
or  destruction  of  the  Union.  The  author's  reasons  for 
his  selections  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  chapter 
wherein  each  battle  is  described. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  volume  the  author  has  exam- 
ined a  vast  amount  of  military  and  other  history,  and  is 
indebted  for  his  material  to  the  works  of  many  previous 
writers.  Of  some  of  the  battles  described  he  had  personal 
knowledge,  and  he  has  been  able  to  inspect  certain  of  the 
battle-fields  referred  to  in  the  narrative.  Among  the 
works  his  obligations  to  which  he  desires  to  acknowledge 
may  be  mentioned  the  following  : — 

"  A  View  of  South  America  and  Mexico  "  (Anonymous) ; 
Soldan's  "  Historia  del  Peru  Independente  "  ;  "  Journals  of 
Lord  Cochrane  in  South  America  "  ;  Phayre's  "  Narrative 
of  the  Burmese  War  "  ;  Histories  of  India  by  Malcolm, 
Mill,  Kaye,  Wilson,  Elphinstone,  and  others;  Alison's 
"  History  of  Europe  "  ;  Lady  Bourcher's  "  Despatches  of 
Admiral  Codrington  " ;  Histories  of  Greece  by  Grote, 
Cox,  and  others ;  Count  Von  Moltke's  "  Russians  in  Bul- 
garia and  Roumelia  "  ;  Chesney's  "  Russo-Turkish  Cam- 
paigns  of   1828-29";  Poltevin's    "Prise   de    la    Citadelle 


PREFACE.  V 

d'Anvers "  ;  Ripley's  "History  of  the  War  with  Mex- 
ico " ;  Bancroft's  "  History  of  the  Pacific  States  of  North 
America";  Malleson's  "Decisive  Battles  of  India,"  and 
"  History  of  the  Indian  Mutiny  "  :  Wright's  "  Northwest- 
ern Provinces  of  India";  M'Ghee's  "How  We  Got  to 
Pekin  " ;  Oliphant's  "Lord  Elgin's  Mission  to  China"; 
Bordstaedt  and  Dwyer's  "  Franco-German  War  "  ;  Mark- 
ham's  "  War  between  Peru  and  Chili  "  ;  Gaffaret's  "  His- 
toire  d'  Algerie  "  ;  King's  "  Europe  in  Storm  and  Calm  "  ; 
Delord's  "  Histoire  du  Second  Empire " ;  Sturmer's 
"  Der  Tod  des  Grafen  Diebitsch  "  ;  Schuyler's  "  Turkes- 
tan "  ;  MacGahan's  "  Fall  of  Khiva  "  ;  Marvin's  "  Rus- 
sians at  the  Gates  of  Herat  "  ;  Boulger's  "  Central  Asian 
Questions";  and  Russell's  " War  in  the  Crimea."  Har- 
pers and  the  Century  Magazines  deserve  acknowledg- 
ment, and  so  do  the  files  of  the  New  York  Tribune, 
London  Daily  News,  London  Times,  Illnstrated  London 
News,  London  GrapJiic,  Augsbiirger  Allgemeine  Zeitung, 
and  other  newspapers.  The  ofificial  records  of  the  Amer- 
ican Civil  War  have  been  examined,  together  with  numer- 
ous volumes  of  an  unof^cial  character.  In  describing  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg  the  author  has  thought  best  to  rely 
mainly  upon  "The  History  of  the  Civil  War  in  America," 
by  the  Comte  de  Paris.  In  so  doing  he  has  hoped  to  avoid 
the  charge  of  partiality,  which  has  been  brought  against 
nearly  every  other  of  the  numerous  writers  on  the  subject. 
The  battles  here  described  possess  an  interest  for  the 
student  of  military  tactics  and  strategy.  The  book  has, 
however,  for  its  further  purpose,  the  idea  of  presenting 
an  outline  survey  of  the  history  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, considered  from  the  point  of  view  of  its  chief 
military  events.  It  is  the  author's  hope  that  the  result  of 
his  labors  may  help  to  make  clear  the  character  and  rela- 
tive importance  of  these  events,  and  to  indicate  their 
influence  in  shaping  the  history  of  our  own  times. 

T.  W.  K. 

New  York,  April,  1887. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER.  PAGE 

I.     Battle  of  Ayacucho — 1824           .        .        .  i 

II.     Battle  of  Prome — 1825         ....  17 

III.  Battle  of  Navarino — 1827            ...  29 

IV.  Siege  of  Silistria — 1829        ....  47 
V.     Battle  of  Staoueli  and  Fall  of  Algiers 

— 1830 64 

VI.     Capture   of  Antwerp    and   Liberation  of 

Belgium — 1832 77 

VII.     Capture  of  the  City  of  Mexico — 1847      .  91 

VIII.     Battle  of  Gujerat — 1849     ....  117 
IX.     Capture  of  the  Malakoff  and  the  Redan, 

AND  Fall  of  Sebastopol — 1855          .         .  133 

X.       LUCKNOW    AND    CaWNPORE 1857-8             .             .  154 

XI.     Capture  of    the    Peiho   Forts   and    Pekin 

— 1858-60 177 

XII.     Battle  of  Solferino — 1859           .         .         .  197 

XIII.  Battle    between    the    Monitor    and    the 

Merrimac — 1862 210 

XIV.  Battle  of  Gettysburg — 1863       .         .         .  230 
XV.     Siege  and  Fall  of  Vicksburg — 1863  .         .  260 

XVI.     Battle  of  Five    Forks  and  Lee's  Surren- 
der— 1865 289 

XVII.     Battle  of  Koeniggratz  (Sadowa) — 1866     .  308 

XVIII.     Battle  of  Gravelotte — 1870      .        .        .  325 


vm 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER.  PAl^B 

XIX.  Battle  and  Fall  of  Sedan — 1870       .         .     344 

XX.     Fall  of  Khiva — 1873 365 

XXI.  Fall  of  Plevna — 1877  .         '         .         .         .     382 

XXII.  Capture  of  Geok  Tepe— 1881       .         .         .415 

XXIII.  Battle  of  Miraflores — 1881        ,         ,         .     431 

XXIV.  El  Obeid — Annihilation  of  Hicks  Pasha's 

Army — 1883  ......     450 

XXV.  Fall  of  Khartoum — 1885      .        .         .         .465 


^^ss 

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^^^T^fc^^^ 

^^^^^^^g 

B 

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vf^^^^C^S 

fjK^-^'l 

^S 

MAPS  AND  PLANS. 


Outline  Map  of  Spanish  America 

Battle  of  Ayacucho     . 

Outline  Map  of  British  Burmah 

Turkey  in  Europe 

Navarino,  Battle  Plan 

Silistria,  Siege  Plan     . 

Outline  Map  of  Algeria 

Plan  of  the  Fortifications  of  the  City  of  Algiers, 

Plan  of  Fortifications  of  Antwerp  and  Vicinity 

Plan  of  the  Gates  (Vera  Cruz) 

Siege  of  Vera  Cruz 

Valley  of  Mexico 

Battle  of  Churubusco  .         .        , 

Battle  of  Moling  del  Rey 

Storming  of  Chapultepec 

Outline  Map  of  the  Punjaub      .... 
Battle  of  Gujerat        ...... 

Plan  of  Sebastopol      , 

Attack  on  the  Malakoff 

Lines  of  Attack  on  the  Malakoff  and  the  Redan 

Sketch  Plan  of  the  Redan  .... 

Position  at  Cawnpore  . 

Siege  of  Lucknow 

River  Pei-Ho 

Forts  on  River  Pei-Ho. 

Engaging  the  Takoo  Forts 


r\Gt 
Fr^ntispiea 

II 


17 
29 

41 
51 
65 
67 
79 
97> 
95 
97 
103 

105 
III 
119 
127 
133 

141 
147 
157 
171 
179 

183 
189 


MAPS  AND   PLANS. 


Sketch  Map  of  Northern  Italy 

Battle  of  Solferino 

Plans  of  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac 

Scene  of  the  Battle  between   the   Monitor 

THE  Merrimac         .... 
Monitor  and  Merrimac  in  Action 
Gettysburg,  Campaign  Map 
Positions  at  Gettysburg,  Second  of  July 
Positions  at  Gettysburg,  Third  of  July 
ViCKSBURG,  Campaign  Map  No.  i 
ViCKSBURG,  Campaign  Map  No.  2 
ViCKSBURG,  Siege  Lines 
Siege  of  Petersburg 
Battle  of  Five  Forks 
Routes  of  March  on  Koeniggratz 
Battle  of  Koeniggratz 
Sketch  Map  of  Region  (Gravelotte) 
Battle  op  Gravelotte,  Positions,  Morning 
Battle  of  Gravelotte,  Positions,  Evening 

Region  about  Sedan 

Battle  of  Sedan,  Positions  Morning 
Battle  of  Sedan,  Positions  Afternoon 
Map  of  Territory  around  Khiva 
First  Battle  of  Plevna        .         .         ... 
Defence  and  Blockade  of  Plevna 
Last  Sortie  from  Plevna     .... 
Outline  Map  of  Changes  in  Europe 
Outline  Map  of  Changes  in  Asia 
Expedition  on  Geok-Tepe     .... 
Battle  of  Miraflores.  .... 

Campaign  of  El  Obeid.     Sketch  of  Territory 
Country  from  Korti  to  Khartoum    , 


AND 


199 

205 
213 

221 
223 

237 
245 
255 
365 
273 
283 

293 

311 
321 

325 
335 
339 
347 
353 
361 

365 
391 
403 
407 
409 

413 
419 

433 
451 
467 


DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE 
WATERLOO. 


CHAPTER    I. 

BATTLE    OF   AYACUCHO — 1 824. 

The  Napoleonic  wars  that  terminated  with  the  battle 
of  Waterloo  reduced  the  nations  of  Europe  to  a  state  of 
exhaustion,  and  for  a  considerable  period  thereafter  there 
was  little  occupation  for  the  soldier.  England,  France, 
Spain,  Germany,  and  Russia  were  engaged  in  repairing 
the  ravages  of  war,  and  by  common  consent  there  was  a 
truce  to  arms  and  a  halt  in  the  work  of  organized  destruc- 
tion- But  the  wings  of  Peace,  outstretched  over  Europe, 
were  folded  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic,  throughout 
all  the  vast  region  known  as  Spanish  America.  Mexico, 
Peru,  Chili,  and  the  other  trans-Atlantic  provinces  of  Spain 
sought  to  sever  their  connection  with  the  Old  World  ; 
one  by  one  they  achieved  their  independence  through  a 
series  of  wars  that  deluged  the  land  with  blood  and 
threatened  to  leave  it  an  uninhabited  waste. 

The  final  battle  of  the  South  American  wars  of  inde- 
pendence was  fought  at  Ayacucho,  Peru,  December  9, 
1824.  Let  us  first  glance  at  the  events  which  led  up  to 
that  sanguinary  conflict,  and  then  consider  the  occur- 
rences of  the  day  which  saw  the  Spanish  power  in  Amer- 
ica broken  forever. 


2  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  the  South  American 
revolutions  had  their  beginning  in  the  intense  loyalty  of 
the  people  of  the  Spanish-American  colonies,  and  partic- 
ularly of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  for  their  king. 
In  1808  the  armies  of  Napoleon  were  overrunning  Spain  ; 
Ferdinand  VII.  \vas  compelled  to  abdicate  the  throne, 
and  Joseph  Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napoleon,  was  pro- 
claimed King  of  Spain  and  the  Indies.  Agents  were  im- 
mediately sent,  in  the  name  of  the  new  king,  to  announce 
to  the  American  colonies  the  abdication  of  Ferdinand  and 
the  elevation  of  Joseph  to  the  throne.  Joseph  shrewdly 
promised  to  the  viceroys  and  captains-general  throughout 
the  colonies,  that  they  should  retain  their  places,  provided 
they  acquiesced  in  the  new  order  of  things  and  induced 
the  people  to  accept  it.  But  though  the  ofificials  were 
resigned  to  the  situation,  the  people  were  not  ;  they  pub- 
licly burned  the  proclamations  of  King  Joseph,  expelled 
his  agents,  and  insulted  all  Frenchmen  then  living  in  the 
colonies,  so  that  most  of  them  fled  for  safety. 

In  July,  1808,  a  French  brig  arrived  at  La  Guayra,  the 
port  of  Caraccas,  with  intelligence  of  recent  events  in 
France  and  Spain,  including  the  abdication  of  Ferdinand 
and  the  accession  of  Joseph  Bonaparte.  The  captain  of 
the  brig  proceeded  to  Caraccas  with  despatches  to  the  cap- 
tain-general, and  soon  after  his  arrival  the  news  from  the 
Old  World  became  known  among  the  people.  An  En- 
glish officer  who  was  there  at  the  time  writes  as  follows:. 

The  city  was  immediately  in  arms,  10,000  of  its  inhabitants 
surrounded  the  residence  of  the  captain-general  and  demanded 
the  proclamation  of  Ferdinand  the  Seventh  as  their  king,  which 
he  promised  the  next  day.  But  this  would  not  satisfy  them  ; 
they  proclaimed  him  that  evening  by  heralds,  in  form,  through- 
out the  city,  and  placed  his  portrait,  illuminated,  in  the  gallery 
of  the  town-house. 

The  French  were  first  publicly  insulted  in  the  coffee-house 
from  which  they  were  obliged  to  withdraw,  and  the  French 


BATTLE   OF  AYACUCHO.  3 

captain  left  Caraccas,  privately,  about  eight  o'clock  that  night, 
escorted  by  a  detachment  of  soldiers,  and  so  saved  his  life, 
for,  about  ten  o'clock,  his  person  was  demanded  of  the  govern- 
or by  the  populace,  and  when  they  learned  that  he  was  gone, 
three  hundred  men  followed  him  to  put  him  to  death. 

About  the  same  time  a  French  brig  arrived  at  Buenos 
Ayres  with  an  envoy  from  Napoleon  carrying  despatches 
to  Liniers,  the  viceroy,  who  issued  a  proclamation  an- 
nouncing the  events  which  had  occurred  in  Spain,  and  ad- 
vising the  people  to  submit  to  the  authority  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte.  The  proclamation  was  coldly  received  by  the 
people;  the  governor  of  Monte  Video  accused  Liniers  of 
disloyalty,  disregarded  his  proclamation,  established  a 
j'unta^  or  governing  body  for  his  province,  and  withdrew 
it  altogether  from  the  authority  of  Liniers. 

In  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  viceroys  and  other  officials 
to  convince  the  colonies  that  every  thing  was  quiet  in 
Spain,  it  became  known  among  the  people  that  the  penin- 
sula was  in  a  state  of  insurrection  against  the  authority 
of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  that  in  some  provinces  he  was 
openly  defied,  and  provincial  juntas  had  assumed  the 
management  of  affairs.  The  one  at  Seville  proclaimed 
itself  the  supreme  junta  of  Spain  and  the  Indies,  and  sent 
deputies  to  the  colonies  requiring  an  acknowledgment 
of  its  authority.  In  order  to  secure  this  acknowledg- 
ment it  announced  that  it  was  recognized  and  obeyed 
throughout  Spain,  which  was  far  from  being  the  case.  At 
the  same  time  the  junta  of  the  Asturias  opposed  that  of 
Seville ;  the  regency  of  Ferdinand  claimed  to  have  su- 
preme authority  ;  and  to  complicate  matters  still  further 
Joseph  Bonaparte  had  been  proclaimed  king.     There  were 

^  Junta  in  Spanish  means  an  association,  and  is  usually  applied  to  a  body 
of  persons  combined  for  any  civil  or  political  object.  It  formerly  referred 
more  particularly  to  assemblies  of  representatives  of  the  people  meeting 
without  authority  of  the  sovereign,  but  has  latterly  been  extended  to  those 
of  the  most  strictly  legal  character. 


4  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

therefore  four  kinds  of  authorities  to  which  the  colonies 
were  required  to  give  allegiance ;  they  were  ready  to 
recognize  any  proper  authority  of  Spanish  origin,  and  \\  hile 
they  differed  as  to  their  proper  course  between  the  various 
juntas,  they  were  all  agreed  in  their  hatred  for  the  French. 

The  efforts  of  the  viceroys  and  their  subordinates  to 
secure  colonial  allegiance  to  Joseph  Bonaparte  led  to  col- 
lisions between  the  populace  and  the  authorities  in  several 
cities,  and  finally  to  open  warfare.  Owing  to  the  dis- 
orders in  Spain  there  was  no  central  power  which  the 
colonies  could  respect,  and  this  circumstance  led  to  the 
formation  of  juntas  of  their  own.  The  first  was  in  Quito 
in  1809,  but  it  was  suppressed  by  the  viceroy  ;  the  second 
was  at  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  in  the  same  year,  and  many  of 
its  members  were  imprisoned  and  afterwards  massacred 
in  cold  blood.  Similar  scenes  were  enacted  in  other  parts 
of  the  colonies,  and  tended  greatly  to  weaken  the  authority 
of  the  mother  country.  Naturally  the  colonists  asked  the 
question,  "  What  will  become  of  us  if  Spain  falls  completely 
under  the  domination  of  Fraiace  ?  "  The  discussion  of  the 
question  naturally  led  to  independence,  and  it  is  easy  to 
see  how  a  struggle  which  began  in  extreme  loyalty  to 
Ferdinand  VII.  and  the  government  he  represented,  could 
develop  into  a  battle  for  complete  independence.  From 
1808  to  18 12  the  French  armies  gained  ground  in  Spain. 
There  was  little  hope  of  a  restoration  of  the  Spanish 
power  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Bonapartes,  and  long  be- 
fore the  disasters  of  Napoleon  in  Russia,  and  the  con- 
sequent retreat  of  the  French  from  Spain,  the  colonies 
were  on  the  high  road  to  absolute  freedom  from  the  yoke 
of  their  mother  country. 

The  government  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  adopted  repres- 
sive measures  towards  the  colonies  ;  troops  were  sent  to 
awe  the  people  into  submission,  the  province  of  Caraccas 
was  declared  in  blockade,  and  the  colonial  rulers  were 
ordered  to  enforce  obedience  at  whatever  cost.     After  the 


BATTLE   OF  AYACUCHO.  5 

retirement  of  the  French  from  Spain,  the  regency,  which 
succeeded  to  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  after  it  the  restored 
king,  Ferdinand  VII.,  continued  the  same  measures, 
totally  ignoring  the  loyalty  which  the  colonies  had  origi- 
nally displayed  at  the  beginning  of  the  French  occupation. 
Nothing  remained  for  the  colonies  but  a  war  for  inde- 
pendence, a  war  which  terminated,  as  already  mentioned, 
with  the  battle  of  Ayacucho,  sixteen  years  after  the  first 
outbreak  at  Caraccas. 

The  story  of  the  South  American  war  of  independence 
would  fill  many  volumes.  Juntas  were  established  in 
Caraccas,  Buenos  Ayres,  Santiago,  and  other  South  Ameri- 
can cities  widely  separated  from  each  other,  during  1810, 
and  the  repressive  measures  adopted  by  the  colonial 
authorities  only  added  to  the  vigor  of  the  movement.  In 
Buenos  Ayres  the  viceroy  was  deposed,  and  the  powers  of 
government  were  assumed  by  a  junta  acting  in  the  name 
of  the  deposed  and  captive  king,  Ferdinand  VII.  From 
Buenos  Ayres  the  disturbance  extended  to  Chili,  where 
another  junta  deposed  the  viceroy  and  assumed  the 
reins  of  government  ;  about  the  same  time  there  was  an 
insurrection  in  Upper  Peru  (now  called  Bolivia)  and  later 
another  in  Peru.  From  a  state  of  tranquillity,  in  1808, 
the  whole  of  South  America  was  in  a  condition  of  open 
or  partial  revolt  in  less  than  four  years,  with  the  single 
exception  of  Brazil. 

Brazil  was  a  colony  of  Portugal,  not  of  Spain.  In  1807, 
when  Napoleon  declared  war  against  Portugal,  its  king, 
John  VI.,  fled  to  Brazil,  accompanied  by  many  courtiers 
and  followed  by  numerous  emigrants.  After  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  in  181 5,  Brazil  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  king- 
dom ;  John  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Portugal,  Al- 
garve,  and  Brazil,  and  on  the  26th  of  February,  1821,  he 
proclaimed  the  constitution.  A  revolutionary  movement 
took  place  in  the  following  April  ;  Brazil  was  proclaimed 
an  independent  empire  ;  it  adopted  a  constitution  in  1824, 


6  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

and  its  independence  was  acknowledged  in  1825.  Its 
transition  from  a  colony  of  a  European  government  to  an 
independent  state  was  far  less  turbulent  than  that  of  its 
neighbors. 

The  revolution  continued  with  varying  success  for  more 
than  a  decade,  but  with  the  advantages  decidedly  in  favor 
of  the  revolutionists.  The  progress  towards  independence 
was  retarded  by  dissensions  among  the  revolutionists, 
which  frequently  threatened  to  restore  the  royalist  power; 
ambitions  and  jealousies  too  often  obscured  patriotism, 
and  in  many  instances  they  led  to  open  or  secret  assas- 
sination. This  was  the  case  in  Buenos  Ayres,  Chili,  and 
Peru  to  a  very  marked  degree,  and  only  to  a  minor  extent 
in  other  parts  of  the  revolted  country.  On  several  occa- 
sions assistance  to  beleaguered  garrisons  or  to  armies  in 
the  field  was  deliberately  refused  or  withheld,  for  no  other 
reason  than  personal  ill-feeling  between  general  and 
other  of^cers  who  were  engaged  in  a  common  cause  of 
patriotism. 

West  of  the  Andes  the  progress  of  the  revolution  was 
less  encouraging  than  in  the  countries  to  the  eastward. 
The  royalists  were  practically  in  full  control  of  Peru  and 
Chili  in  the  early  years  of  the  insurrection,  and  in  the  lat- 
ter country  they  had  banished  many  of  the  leading  patri- 
ots to  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez,  and  were  exercising 
extreme  tyranny  over  all  the  people.  Early  in  18 17  Gen- 
eral San  Martin,  Governor  of  Mendoza,  and  an  active  pa- 
triot of  Buenos  Ayres,  conceived  the  design  of  crossing 
the  Andes  with  an  army  of  liberation  to  assist  the  Chilian 
patriots.  Nearly  a  year  was  spent  in  organizing  the  army 
and  collecting  the  necessary  materials  and  transportation. 
The  passage  of  the  Andes  by  San  Martin  was  a  more  dif- 
ficult matter  than  that  of  Napoleon  over  the  Alps*;  it  was 
accomplished  in  thirteen  days,  with  a  loss  of  a  few  men 
and  of  five  thousand  horses  and  mules,  and  was  followed 
by  the  battle  of  Chacabuco,  in  which  the  royalists  were 


BATTLE    OF  AYACUCHO.  J 

completely  defeated.  A  junta  was  immediately  formed 
at  Santiago,  and  the  dictatorship  was  offered  to  San  Mar- 
tin, who  declined  it. 

The  royalist  army  of  Chili  fled  to  Talcahuano,  and  after 
receiving  reinforcements  from  the  viceroy  at  Lima,  re- 
sumed the  offensive.  It  encountered  the  patriot  army  on 
the  plains  of  Maypu,  April  5,  1818,  and  the  encounter 
resulted  in  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  battles  on  record, 
when  the  number  of  men  engaged  is  considered.  Out  of 
eight  thousand  men  comprising  the  Spanish  army,  two 
thousand  were  killed  or  wounded,  and  three  thousand  cap- 
tured. The  general  escaped  with  a  portion  of  his  cavalry, 
but  all  the  baggage,  artillery,  military  chests,  and  supplies 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  patriots.  The  loss  of  the  latter 
was  one  thousand  killed  and  wounded,  out  of  an  aggre- 
gate of  about  seven  thousand.  The  victory  gave  inde- 
pendence to  Chili,  and  turned  attention  towards  Peru. 
Steps  were  immediately  taken  to  aid  the  Peruvians  to  gain 
their  independence,  and  for  this  purpose  an  army  and  a 
naval  force  was  organized. 

Lord  Cochrane,  an  English  naval  officer,  arrived  in  Chili 
in  November,  1818,  and  was  immediately  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  Chilian  squadron.  Great  exertions  were 
made,  and  in  the  course  of  a  year  many  captures  were 
effected,  though  not  without  some  losses  by  the  Chilian 
squadron.  On  the  20th  of  August,  1820,  a  combined  land 
and  naval  expedition  left  Valparaiso  for  Pisco,  about  one 
hundred  miles  south  of  Peru,  where  the  land  forces  were 
disembarked.  The  squadron  proceeded  to  Callao,  where 
a  Spanish  frigate  of  forty  guns  with  two  sloops-of-war  and 
fourteen  gun-boats  were  lying  under  the  protection  of  the 
batteries.  On  the  night  of  November  5th,  Lord  Cochrane 
succeeded  in  capturing  the  frigate,  and  this  exploit  was 
practically  the  termination  of  the  Spanish  naval  power  in 
the  Pacific,  so  far  as  offensive  measures  were  concerned. 

An  armistice  of  the  land  forces  was  made  by  request  of 


8  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

the  viceroy,  but  nothing  came  of  it.  The  independent  army 
moved  leisurely  to  the  north  of  Lima,  remaining  for  weeks 
and  sometimes  months  in  camp  engaged  in  recruiting  and 
in  the  dissemination  of  liberal  ideas,  and  also  in  cutting  off 
the  supplies  of  the  royalists  in  Lima,  Later  there  was  an- 
other abortive  armistice,  and  early  in  July,  182 1,  San  Martin 
threatened  to  move  against  Lima.  Thereupon  the  viceroy 
abandoned  it,  and  on  the  12th  of  the  month  San  Martin 
entered  and  was  joyously  received.  The  independence  of 
Peru  was  solemnly  proclaimed  on  the  28th  of  July,  and  on 
the  3d  of  August  San  Martin  assumed  the  title  of  Protector 
of  Peru  and  issued  a  proclamation. 

The  liberating  army  remained  inactive  till  the  following 
May,  but  the  work  of  recruiting  and  making  ready  for  the 
field  was  actively  continued.  In  July,  1822,  San  Martin 
went  to  Guayaquil  for  an  interview  with  Simon  Bolivar, 
the  liberator  of  Colombia,  and  returned  in  August  with  a 
contingent  of  Colombian  troops. 

On  the  20th  of  September,  1822,  the  constitutional  con- 
gress of  Peru  was  assembled  and  San  Martin  surrendered 
his  dictatorship  which  he  had  held  for  little  more  than  a 
year.  The  congress  unanimously  named  him  general  and 
commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  Peru  ;  he  accepted 
the  title,  but  declined  the  appointment  on  the  ground  that 
such  a  position  would  be  inconsistent  with  the  authority  of 
congress.  Shortly  afterward  he  returned  to  Chili,  and  the 
affairs  of  Peru  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  junta  of  three 
prominent  citizens.  In  November,  1822,  an  expedition 
left  Lima  for  the  southern  coast  but  it  was  defeated  and 
dispersed  by  the  royalists  in  the  following  January.  There- 
upon the  royalist  army  reoccupied  Lima  and  the  patriot 
cause  was  in  great  danger. 

About  this  time  the  United  States  of  Colombia  achieved 
independence,  after  a  long  and  devastating  war  which  was 
brought  to  a  triumphal  end  by  the  genius  and  patriotism  of 
Simon  Bolivar.     Foreseeing  that   if  the  royalists  obtained 


BATTLE   OF  AYACUCHO.  9 

control  in  Peru  the  independence  of  Colombia  would  be 
endangered,  and  being  invited  by  the  Peruvians,  Bolivar 
proceeded  to  Lima  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force  ;  he 
was  joyfully  welcomed  and  appointed  dictator  of  Peru, 
until  such  time  as  the  Spaniards  should  be  conquered  or 
driven  out.  The  royalist  army  retired  to  the  interior  at 
the  approach  of  Bolivar  and  his  army. 

The  royalists  were  in  such  numbers  that  Bolivar  did 
not  dare  to  risk  a  battle  until  the  arrival  of  reinforcements 
from  Colombia,  and  when  threatened  with  an  attack  he  re- 
tired to  Truxillo.  In  February,  1824,  the  royalists  again 
occupied  Lima  and  Callao ;  by  the  following  June  Boli- 
var's forces  were  sufBciently  strong  to  enable  him  to  re- 
sume the  offensive,  which  resulted  in  a  battle  on  the  plains 
of  Junin,  on  the  6th  of  August,  where  the  royalists  were 
defeated  with  heavy  loss,  especially  in  cavalry,  on  which 
great  reliance  was  placed.  From  this  time  until  the  9th  of 
December  no  important  action  was  fought  but  there  was 
much  skilful  manoeuvring  on  both  sides.  The  liberating 
army,  consisting  of  the  united  forces  of  Peru  and  Colombia, 
was  under  the  command  of  General  Anton  Jose  de  Sucre, 
who  had  previously  distinguished  himself  on  the  battle- 
field and  especially  at  Pichincha  in  1822,  where  he  de- 
feated the  Spaniards  in  a  fiercely  fought  conflict. 

Early  in  December  General  Sucre  took  a  position  at 
Ayacucho  in  sight  of  the  royalist  army,  which  was  posted 
on  a  height.  General  Bolivar  was  not  present  ;  he  had 
given  full  power  to  Sucre  to  do  as  he  thought  best,  either 
to  give  battle  to  the  roj'alists  or  refuse  it.  In  a  letter 
written  a  short  time  before  the  battle  of  Ayacucho  Boli- 
var cautioned  Sucre  in  the  following  words  : 

"  Remember,  that  on  your  army  corps  depends  the  fate 
of  Peru,  perhaps  forever;  and  with  it,  that  of  the  whole 
of  America,  perhaps  for  years.  Considering  the  terrible 
consequences  which  a  battle  lost  may  entail  upon  us, 
every  means  of  foresight  and  strategy  is  to  be  exerted  so 


lO  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

as  not  to  make  a  move  without  gaining  a  decided  and 
absolute  success." 

Acting  on  this  advice  Sucre  had  advanced  with  great 
caution.  Several  times  the  enemy  offered  battle,  which 
Sucre  declined,  as  he  was  waiting  the  arrival  of  reinforce- 
ments which  were  hurrying  forward.  There  were  several 
skirmishes  in  which  no  decided  advantage  was  gained  by 
either  side,  but  the  movements  of  the  patriots  frustrated 
some  of  the  plans  of  the  viceroy  and  compelled  him  to 
make  many  changes  of  position. 

On  the  4th  of  December,  Lieutenant  Colonel  Medina, 
adjutant  of  the  liberator,  Bolivar,  came  into  Sucre's  camp 
with  a  final  order  that  a  decisive  battle  was  to  be  ven- 
tured. It  was  offered  on  that  very  day  in  the  plain  of  Tam- 
bo,  but  the  Spaniards  declined. 

On  December  8th  both  armies  stood  face  to  face.  Every 
thing  told  that  they  were  on  the  eve  of  a  great  battle, 
which  neither  could  avoid  by  means  of  a  retreat  without 
the  risk  of  destruction.  Sucre's  position  was  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  friendly  villages,  and  he  was 
opposed  by  an  army  accustomed  to  quick  marches  ;  the 
roads  were  rough,  and  his  supplies  were  giving  out. 
Scarcely  could  he  muster  5,780  men,  and  he  had  only  one 
small  piece  of  artillery. 

On  the  other  hand  the  Spaniards  were  obliged  to  force 
the  fight.  A  retreat  would  have  been  tantamount  to  a 
rout,  and  their  rations  were  alarmingly  short.  But  they 
were  superior  in  numbers,  as  they  counted  9,310  men  of 
all  arms,  with  fourteen  pieces  of  artillery. 

The  Spanish  army  was  on  the  hills  round  about  Con- 
dorcanqui ;  its  right  and  left  wings  were  protected  by  a 
deep  ravine,  its  rear-guard  stood  against  the  steep  moun- 
tain range,  and  its  front  was  towards  a  plain  half  a  mile  in 
width  and  a  mile  in  length. 

General  Miller  of  the  liberating  army  thus  describes 
the  battle-field  : 


fe:^-%fi  6  li)  [i]  (&  1^  S--"     ^^ 

4         ^    ' "-       C^  CHO  _  ^ 

C^<77?  doTcunqu  z 


INDEPENDENT 
INFANTRY     ^T^ 
CAVALRY 


ROYALIST 

INFANTRY   UZL 
CAVALRY      \^= 


BATTLE  OF  AYACUCHO 

'—'DEC. 9    laZft —^ 


12  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Quinua,  an  Indian  village,  is  located  on  the  farther  side,  to 
the  west  of  Ayacucho,  almost  square  in  shape  and  about  a  mile 
in  circuit,  bordered  right  and  left  by  deep  and  rugged  ravines. 
Back  of  the  plain,  or  towards  the  east,  it  slopes  off  gradually 
for  two  miles  towards  the  high  road  from  Guamanga  to  An- 
anta,  which  runs  right  up  to  a  perpendicular  rock  and  ends 
there.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  plain  is  Condorcanqui,  on 
a  huge  ledge  of  rock  which  runs  from  north  to  south.  On 
this  ledge  the  royalist  army  was  encamped. 

The  army  of  liberation  formed  in  the  plain,  in  front  of 
the  Spaniards,  about  a  half  a  mile  away.  They  were  drawn 
up  in  close  columns  and  awaited  the  onset  of  the  royal- 
ists. The  corps  of  the  independents  were  stationed  in 
the  following  manner  : 

Cordova's  Division,  (on  the  right  wing) 

Consisting  of  the  regiment  of  Bogota, 

"     "  "  "  Pichincha, 

"     "  "  "  Skirmishers. 

Miller's  Division  '  (in  the  centre) 

Consisted  of  the  Hussars  of  Junin, 

"  "     "    Grenadiers  of  Colombia, 

"  "     "    Hussars  of 

"  "     "    Mounted  Grenadiers  of  Buenos 

Ayres. 
In  La  Mar's  Division  (on  the  left) 

Was  the  Peruvian  Legion, 
Battalion  No.  i. 
''         "      2. 

Lara's  Division,  (reserve) 

Was  made  up  of  Camp-followers, 
"         "     "     "  Deserters, 
♦'     "     "  Riflemen, 

Artillery  one  four-pounder. 
The  following  account  of  the  battle  is  abridged  from 
"  Historia  del  Peru  Independente." 


BATTLE   OF  AYACUCHO.  I  3 

On  the  memorable  day,  Thursday  December  9,  1824,  the 
morning  was  clear  and  the  sun  brilliantly  lighted  the  scene. 
The  trumpets  and  drums  sounded.  The  ofificers  moved  in  all 
directions  to  take  their  orders  :  on  the  right,  the  young  and 
brave  general  of  division,  Cordova,  a  general  of  division  at 
twenty-five  ;  on  the  left  the  Peruvian  body,  sent  by  brave  and 
honest  old  La  Mar  ;  the  centre  the  gallant  Lara  commanded, 
together  with  the  remaining  Colombian  section.  The  cavalry 
formed  in  the  rear  about  the  centre  of  the  division  ;  it  had 
been  moved  up  by  orders  of  the  famous  Miller.  Sucre,  the  head 
of  all,  went  to  inspect  the  troops  with  a  coolness  that  never 
forsook  him,  leaving  nothing  undone  that  his  genius  and  ex- 
perience suggested.  Down  the  whole  line  he  rode,  exhorting 
the  men  with  stirring  words.  Halting  near  the  centre,  he  said 
with  deep  emotion  : 

"  By  you,  soldiers,  present  here,  the  fate  of  South  America  is  to 
be  decided " j  and  noticing  the  hostile  forces  descending  to 
meet  them  he  added  :  "  This  day  will  crown  your  prowess." 

On  the  royalist  side  General  Canterac,  chief  in  command, 
called  up  the  generals  and  commanders  of  divisions  and  gave 
out  the  orders  of  the  day.  General  Valdez  held  the  right  of 
the  line,  Monet  the  left,  and  Villalobolos  the  centre,  while  the 
cavalry  was  formed  in  the  rear. 

It  was  ten  in  the  morning  when  the  fire  opened,  and  the 
action  fairly  began.  At  first  the  advantage  was  on  the  side  of 
the  Spaniards,  but  General  Cordova  brought  up  his  division 
within  a  hundred  yards  of  the  enemy,  where  he  ordered  a  vol- 
ley and  followed  it  with  a  bayonet  charge.  The  attack  was 
successful,  and  the  enemy  fled  in  disorder.  Charge  followed 
charge,  and  by  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  victory  was  prac- 
tically assured  to  the  patriots. 

.  The  enemy  rallied  again  on  the  heights  of  Condorcanqui, 
and  owing  to  the  exertions  of  Canterac,  Valdez,  and  other  offi- 
cers, somewhere  near  a  thousand  men  were  collected.  A  coun- 
cil of  war  was  called  for  by  Canterac,  who  stated  that  Peru  was 
irretrievably  lost  since  Olaneta,  their  only  hope,  had  gone  over 
to  the  enemy,  and  was  making  terms  for  capitulation.  This 
fact  was  accepted  by  nearly  all  the  royalist  ofificers,  and  then 


14  DECISIVE  BATTIES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Canterac  asked  for  a  truce  of  arms.  Very  soon  General  La 
Mar  came  over,  and  assured  them  that  Sucre  would  accept  an 
honorable  capitulation. 

The  time  was  precious  ;  the  sun  had  just  gone  down  after 
having  shone  upon  the  grandest  day  of  America,  and  the  routed 
Spaniards  would  have  had  to  perish  in  their  flight  or  starve  for 
want  of  food.  Canterac  explained  the  straits  in  which  they  were, 
and  assured  the  Spanish  commanders  that  there  was  no  other 
means  of  safety.  It  was  decided  that  General  Canterac  should 
convey  the  resolution,  and  settle  the  conditions  of  capitulation. 

Sucre's  greatness  and  generosity  were  shown  in  the  condi- 
tions of  surrender.  He  might  have  imposed  harsh  or  humili- 
ating terms,  but  his  way  was  not  to  crush  his  brave  opponents. 
Canterac  handed  over  the  minutes,  consisting  of  eighteen  arti- 
cles, and  they  were  ratified  with  slight  modifications.  Accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  capitulation,  all  troops,  baggage,  and  am- 
munition in  Peru  were  handed  over  to  the  patriots  ;  all  the 
men  of  the  Spanish  army  could  freely  go  home  at  the  expense 
of  Peru,  and  while  they  marched  along  with  the  Peruvians, 
they  would  receive  their  pay  ;  those  preferring  the  Peruvian 
service  might  enter  it.  No  one  should  be  molested  in  person 
or  property  for  his  former  opinions,  and  all  were  free  to  leave 
the  country  whenever  they  chose.  Peru  would  take  up  the  na- 
tional debt  contracted  by  the  Spanish  government  in  the  coun- 
try. The  fortresses  of  Callao  were  to  surrender  within  twenty 
days,  handing  over  formally  their  public  parks,  warehouses, 
archives,  etc.  Vessels  of  war  and  tenders  belonging  to  Spain 
might  remain  for  six  months,  to  ship  their  provisions  and  get 
ready  for  quitting  the  Pacific. 

The  prisoners  taken  in  the  battle  included  the  Viceroy  La 
Serna,  General  Canterac,  chief  in  command,  fourteen  other 
generals,  with  numbers  of  subordinate  officers,  in  addition  to 
the  soldiers  ;  in  short,  those  that  were  not  killed  on  the  battle- 
field were  captured.  There  were  1,400  dead,  and  700  wounded, 
on  the  Spanish  side  ;  of  the  patriots,  300  were  killed,  and  609 
wounded  ;  in  all,  about  3,016  hors  de  combat,  almost  the  fourth 
part  of  those  engaged,  which  shows  how  fiercely  the  battle  was 
contested. 


BATTLE   OF  AYACUCHO.  I  5 

After  burying  the  dead,  the  victorious  army  moved 
southward  from  Ayacucho.  Cuzco,  Arequipa,  and  other 
points  were  surrendered,  but  General  Rodel,  commanding 
the  fortress  of  Callao,  refused  to  accept  the  terms  of  capit- 
ulation. The  fortress  was  immediately  invested  by  the 
Colombian  and  Peruvian  troops,  and  blockaded  by  a  naval 
force  which  was  lent  to  Bolivar  by  Chili.  The  fortress 
held  out  for  more  than  a  year,  and  was  not  surrendered 
until  the  garrison  of  five  hundred  men  was  at  the  point  of 
starvation.  General  Rodel  embarked  for  Europe  with  the 
soldiers  that  chose  to  accompany  him,  and  the  fall  of  Cal- 
lao was  the  final  event  of  the  war. 

As  soon  as  the  news  of  the  victory  at  Ayacucho  reached 
Lima,  Bolivar  issued  the  following  proclamation  : 

To  the  Soldiers  of  the  Conquering  Army  at  Ayacucho  : 

Soldiers — You  have  carried  liberty  to  South  America,  and 
a  quarter  of  the  globe  bears  witness  to  your  glory.  Who  could 
have  beaten  you  off  ? 

South  America  is  full  of  the  marks  of  your  valor,  but  Ayacu- 
cho, Chimborazo-like,  rises  above  all. 

Soldiers — Colombia  owes  you  the  laurels  you  have  won,  and 
Peru  its  life,  liberty,  and  peace,  not  to  forget  what  La  Pensa 
and  Chili  owe  you.  The  good  cause,  the  cause  of  the  rights  of 
men,  has  been  vindicated  by  you,  in  a  terrible  battle  against 
the  oppressors.  See,  then,  the  benefit  you  have  conferred 
upon  the  human  race  by  your  heroic  sacrifices. 

Soldiers — Accept  the  undying  gratitude  which  I  pronounce 
in  the  name  of  Peru.  You  shall  be  rewarded  before  you  return 
to  your  beautiful  home.  No,  no,  never  could  an  adequate  re- 
ward be  found  ;  your  services  are  beyond  any  price. 

Peruvian  soldiers — Your  country  will  ever  hold  you  among 
the  chief  saviors  of  Peru. 

Colombian  soldiers — Hundreds  of  victories  immortalize  you. 

Bolivar. 

Head-quarters  at  Lima,  Dec.  25,  1824. 

Honors  and  rewards  were  showered  upon  the  liberator's 


l6  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

army.  Each  corps  carried  the  adjunct  of  "  Glorious  Lib- 
erators of  Peru^'  with  the  further  addition  of  "  Well  De- 
servedin  the  Highest  Degree."  Commanders,  offtcers,  and 
men  received  medals,  the  widows  and  famihes  of  those 
fallen  in  the  field  were  amply  provided  for ;  the  wounded 
continued  to  receive  full  pay  for  life,  and  Sucre  became 
Grand  Marshal  of  Ayacucho.  Many  generals  and  other 
ofificers  were  promoted,  and  a  monument  on  the  field  of 
Ayacucho  reminds  the  visitor  of  the  battle  that  terminated 
the  Spanish  rule  in  South  America. 


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CHAPTER  II. 


BATTLE     OF    PROME — 1 82 5. 


From  America  we  will  pass  nearly  half  way  around  the 
globe  in  our  search  for  the  next  decisive  battle  after  that 
of  Ayacucho. 

All  students  of  history  are  well  aware  that  the  British 
power  in  India  in  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  was 
represented  by  the  East  India  Company.  From  an  asso- 
ciation of  merchants  trading  to  the  East  Indies  in  A.  D. 
1600,  the  Honorable  East  India  Company  grew  to  a  colony 
of  national  importance.  It  possessed  an  army  and  a  navy, 
it  had  the  right  of  eminent  domain,  it  had  a  commercial 
monopoly  the  greatest  ever  known,  and  the  people  under 
its  control  numbered  many  millions.  It  possessed  the 
powers  of  a  state  and  likewise  its  ambitions  ;  it  conquered 
territories  neighboring  to  its  own  and  then  looked  for 
more  territories  to  conquer.  Kingdoms  and  principalities 
of  India  were  brought  under  its  sway,  and  there  was  hardly 
a  decade  in  the  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  its  existence 
in  which  it  was  not  at  war  with  neighboring  powers.  It 
generally  came  off  victorious,  thanks  to  the  splendid  fight- 
ing qualities  which  British  soldiers  have  displayed  through 
many  ages,  backed  by  the  well-known  British  policy  of 
never  submitting  to  temporary  defeat  at  the  hands  of 
Asiatics. 

While  the  British  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  cent- 
ury were  extending  their  boundaries  in  the  northwest 
provinces  of  India,  the  kingdom  of    Burmah  displayed  a 

17 


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1 

CHAPTER  II. 


BATTLE     OF    PROME — 1 82 5. 


From  America  we  will  pass  nearly  half  way  around  the 
globe  in  our  search  for  the  next  decisive  battle  after  that 
of  Ayacucho. 

All  students  of  history  are  well  aware  that  the  British 
power  in  India  in  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  was 
represented  by  the  East  India  Company,  From  an  asso- 
ciation of  merchants  trading  to  the  East  Indies  in  A.  D. 
i6cx),  the  Honorable  East  India  Company  grew  to  a  colony 
of  national  importance.  It  possessed  an  army  and  a  navy, 
it  had  the  right  of  eminent  domain,  it  had  a  commercial 
monopoly  the  greatest  ever  known,  and  the  people  under 
its  control  numbered  many  millions.  It  possessed  the 
powers  of  a  state  and  likewise  its  ambitions  ;  it  conquered 
territories  neighboring  to  its  own  and  then  looked  for 
more  territories  to  conquer.  Kingdoms  and  principalities 
of  India  were  brought  under  its  sway,  and  there  was  hardly 
a  decade  in  the  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  its  existence 
in  which  it  was  not  at  war  with  neighboring  powers.  It 
generally  came  off  victorious,  thanks  to  the  splendid  fight- 
ing qualities  which  British  soldiers  have  displayed  through 
many  ages,  backed  by  the  well-known  British  policy  of 
never  submitting  to  temporary  defeat  at  the  hands  of 
Asiatics. 

While  the  British  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  cent- 
ury were  extending  their  boundaries  in  the  northwest 
provinces  of  India,  the  kingdom  of    Burmah  displayed  a 

17 


1 8  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

desire  to  aggrandize  some  of  the  region  lying  to  the  south 
of  the  company's  territories.  About  1798  some  30,000 
Mugs,  inhabitants  of  Arracan,  in  Burmah,  fled  from  the 
oppression  of  their  Burmese  masters  and  sought  refuge  in 
Chittagong,  a  possession  of  the  British.  Several  attempts 
were  made  by  the  Burmese  to  secure  the  return  of  these 
fugitives,  but  without  avail  ;  between  1800  and  1813  five 
or  six  embassies  were  sent  by  the  Burmese  government 
to  that  of  India  with  this  object  in  view,  but  all  failed  of 
their  purpose.  Then  all  was  quiet  for  a  time,  save  that 
there  were  occasional  raids  of  very  little  consequence  along 
the  frontier.  In  1822  the  Burmese  adopted  bellicose  meas- 
ures ;  they  seized  the  island  of  Shahporee,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  arm  of  the  sea  dividing  Chittagong  from  Arracan, 
overpowering  the  British  by  a  night  attack  and  taking 
possession  in  the  name  of  the  Burmese  goverment.  When 
asked  to  explain  his  action,  the  governor  of  Arracan  an- 
nounced that  his  government  had  annexed  the  island,  and 
unless  the  right  of  the  Burmese  to  its  possessions  were  ad- 
mitted, the  king  of  Burmah  would  send  an  army  to  invade 
the  British  territory.  This  plan  of  proceeding  was  not 
unlike  that  of  more  civilized  countries,  Great  Britain 
among  them,  in  carrying  on  the  work  of  annexation,  but 
when  tried  against  the  British  it  was  certain  to  be  resented. 
The  governor-general  of  India  was  not  ready  to  assume 
the  offensive  at  once  ;  the  Burmese  mistook  delay  for  tim- 
idity and  proceeded  to  invade  British  territory.  Large 
bodies  of  Burmese  troops  crossed  the  frontier  from  Assam 
and  Munnipore  and  established  themselves  in  bamboo 
stockades ;  they  were  driven  out  by  the  British,  but  not 
without  considerable  loss  to  the  latter.  These  operations 
took  place  in  1823  and  '24  ;  while  the  British  were  prepar- 
ing to  send  a  considerable  force  against  the  invaders,  news 
came  to  Calcutta  that  Maha  Bandula,  the  favorite  general 
of  the  king  of  Ava,  had  penetrated  the  British  territories 
bordering  Arracan  with  a  large  army,  and  was  so  confident 


BATTLE    OF  PROME.  I9 

of  success  that  he  carried  with  him  a  set  of  golden  fetters 
in  which  the  governor-general  of  India  was  to  be  carried 
captive  to  Burmah.  As  soon  as  this  news  was  known  to 
be  authentic,  Lord  Amherst,  the  governor-general,  pro- 
claimed war  and  set  his  troops  in  motion. 

Port  Cornwallis  in  the  Andaman  Islands  was  named  as 
a  point  of  rendezvous  ;  a  division  from  Bengal  was  sent 
there  in  April,  and  followed  a  month  later  by  a  division 
from  Madras.  Sir  Archibald  Campbell  was  named  the 
commander-in-chief  ;  he  had  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Spanish  campaigns,  but  knew  little  about  Oriental  modes 
of  warfare.  Commodore  Grant  commanded  the  naval 
part  of  the  expedition,  which  consisted  of  the  Liffcy, 
Lame,  Sophia,  Slancy,  and  several  smaller  vessels.  There 
was  one  small  steamboat,  the  Snake,  and  it  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  this  boat,  built  at  Bombay  in  1S20,  had  an 
honorable  career  of  sixty  years,  and  was  broken  up  in 
1880. 

The  land  forces  comprised  about  1 1 ,500  men  of  all  arms, 
the  great  majority  being  native  troops  of  India.  It  was 
the  plan  of  the  commander  to  move  upon  Rangoon,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Irrawaddy,  and  by  prompt  action  cap- 
ture the  city,  and  thus  frighten  the  king  into  asking  for 
peace. 

Detachments  were  sent  to  occupy  Cheduba  and  Ne- 
grais  ;  the  rest  of  the  command  arrived  off  Rangoon  ac- 
companied by  the  whole  fleet.  The  city,  which  was  built 
on  the  bank  of  the  river,  was  found  to  be  surrounded  by  a 
stockade  about  twelve  feet  in  height.  The  stockade  was 
built  of  teak  timber  in  the  form  of  a  square,  and  defended 
by  batteries  on  the  water  front.  These  batteries  opened  fire 
on  the  nearest  ships,  and  the  Liffey  answered  it  immedi- 
ately. The  guns  at  the  landing  were  speedily  dismounted, 
and  the  soldiers  occupied  the  town,  no  enemy  being  in 
sight.  The  governor  of  Pegu,  the  province  in  which 
Rangoon  is  situated,  had   been  commanded  to  come   to 


20  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

the  capital  ;  he  died  there,  and  his  successor  had  not 
arrived  when  the  fleet  appeared.  The  rewan,  or  com- 
mander of  the  flotilla,  was  acting-governor ;  he  knew 
nothing  of  the  proposed  attack  and  was  therefore  taken 
by  surprise.  In  order  to  render  the  prize  of  the  English 
of  little  value  he  forced  the  native  inhabitants  to  leave 
the  town,  allowing  none  of  them  to  remain  in  or  near  it. 
The  guards  who  had  been  placed  in  charge  of  the  few 
Europeans  and  foreign  residents  soon  fled,  thus  permit- 
ting them  to  escape.  The  rainy  season  was  approaching, 
and,  as  the  inhabitants  had  taken  with  them  their  boats, 
cattle,  and  carts,  the  English  general  found  himself  una- 
ble to  secure,  either  by  land  or  water,  the  necessary  trans- 
portation facilities  for  carrying  on  operations. 

Immediately  on  landing  in  Rangoon  General  Camp- 
bell occupied  the  Shoay  Dagon  or  Golden  Pagoda.  The 
pagoda  is  situated  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  river 
and  stands  on  high  ground.  General  Campbell  found  it 
impossible  to  learn  any  thing  of  the  movements  of  the 
enemy,  his  force  being  entirely  isolated.  He  sent  a  num- 
ber of  row-boats,  well  armed,  to  Kymyindaing  to  recon- 
noitre. This  town  is  distant  by  river  about  six  miles  from 
Rangoon.  Some  shots  were  fired  from  several  breast- 
works which  lined  the  shore.  These  breastworks  were 
attacked  the  next  day,  and  carried  by  a  small  detachment 
of  soldiers  and  marines. 

Within  a  few  days  the  general,  in  person,  made  a  sur- 
vey of  the  country  to  the  north  of  Shoay  Dagon,  taking 
with  him  two  guns,  some  native  infantry,  and  about  three 
hundred  European  soldiers.  There  was  no  road,  and  the 
guns  were  soon  abandoned  because  of  the  heavy  rains 
which  prevailed,  rendering  an  advance  extremely  difificult. 
The  troops,  however,  moved  forward,  leaving  the  artillery, 
which  could  not  be  dragged  through  the  mud.  At  a  dis- 
tance of  five  or  six  miles  from  the  great  pagoda  they  saw 
two  stockades,  four  feet  in  height,  with  an  interior  trench 


BATTLE    OF  PROME.  21 

and  a  well-placed  abatis.  An  attack  was  made,  and  the 
stockades  were  carried  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  the 
muskets  being  useless  on  account  of  the  rain.  The  Bur- 
mese lost  about  three  hundred  men. 

This  was  the  first  time  the  Burmese  had  ever  fought 
against  European  soldiers  ;  they  were  astonished  at  the 
savage  attack  of  the  white  soldiers,  who  carried  the 
stockades  without  firing  a  gun.  Although  the  levies  of 
the  country  were  near  the  forts,  the  rewan  did  not  use 
them.  The  British  now  held  Kymyindaing  as  an  out- 
post, and  for  some  weeks  there  were  few  hostile  move- 
ments. During  these  weeks  the  British  army  suffered 
terribly  from  sickness.  The  climate  and  the  constant  ex- 
posure to  the  rain  brought  fever  and  dysentery,  which 
crowded  the  hospitals  and  carried  many  victims  to  their 
graves.  It  was  feared  at  one  time  that  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  retire  altogether  from  Rangoon,  as  there  threat- 
ened to  be  not  a  single  soldier  able  to  defend  it.  Strong 
efforts  were  made  by  the  Burmese  to  oppose  the  British 
army  during  the  occupation  of  Rangoon.  The  plan  was 
simply  to  cut  off  all  communication  with  the  inhabitants 
of  Pegu  who  might  be  friendly  to  the  invading  forces,  and 
by  overpowering  numbers  to  capture  the  troops,  or  drive 
them  into  the  sea.  They  formed  a  complete  cordon  about 
the  I^ritish,  who  could  learn  very  little  through  their 
scouts,  and  as  all  the  natives  had  been  removed  from 
the  neighborhood,  there  were  no  means  of  communica- 
tion. It  had  been  expected  that  the  inhabitants  of  Pegu 
would  rise  against  their  Burmese  oppressors,  but  not  a 
word  came  to  indicate  that  they  contemplated  any  insur- 
rection. Large  levies  of  troops  were  made  throughout 
Burmah,  and  the  numbers  of  the  army  surrounding  Ran- 
goon increased  daily.  The  river  was  covered  with  boats 
bringing  men  and  provisions  to  the  besieging  army,  and 
by  the  end  of  May  the  Burmese  considered  themselves 
strong  enough  to  defy  their  enemies. 


22  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Always  on  halting  a  Burmese  army  entrenches  itself  or 
throws  up  a  stockade,  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
ground  or  the  abundance  of  stockading  material.  In  the 
operations  against  the  British  not  more  than  half  the 
Burmese  soldiers  were  armed  with  muskets,  the  rest 
carrying  swords  or  spears  and  acting  as  pioneers.  Within 
a  day's  march  of  Rangoon,  both  on  the  river  bank  and  in 
the  interior,  there  were  several  miles  of  strong  stockades, 
which  the  Burmese  erected  in  their  effort  to  isolate  the 
British  in  the  city.  General  Campbell  captured  many  of 
these  stockades,  and  at  each  capture  there  was  a  heavy 
slaughter  of  Burmese.  The  king  recalled  Maha  Bandula, 
the  ablest  of  the  Burmese  generals,  from  the  threatened 
invasion  of  Bengal,  and  ordered  him  to  expel  the  invaders 
from  Rangoon. 

By  the  end  of  November  Maha  Bandula  had  an  army 
of  sixty  thousand  men,  and  appeared  in  force  in  front  of 
the  Shoay  Dagon,  or  Golden  Pagoda.  The  British  had  es- 
tablished a  station  at  Kymyindaing,  about  seven  miles  up 
the  river,  where  they  had  captured  a  strong  stockade,  and 
the  first  effort  of  the  Burmese  general  was  to  capture  this 
stockade,  in  which  he  was  unsuccessful.  '  For  three  or 
four  days  General  Campbell  allowed  the  Burmese  to  ad- 
vance their  outposts  until  they  were  within  fifty  yards  of 
his  lines  and  out  of  the  protection  of  the  jungle  which  had 
concealed  their  movements.  As  soon  as  he  ascertained 
that  they  had  brought  all  their  ammunition  and  provisions 
out  of  the  jungle  and  into  their  entrenchments  he  ordered 
an  attack ;  there  was  severe  fighting  all  along  the  line,  re- 
sulting in  the  defeat  and  flight  of  the  Burmese,  and  the 
loss  of  all  the  war  material  which  they  had  brought  to  the 
front  of  their  lines.  From  the  first  to  the  fifteenth  of 
December  it  was  estimated  that  six  thousand  Burmese 
were  killed,  while  the  English  loss  in  killed  and  wounded 
was  about  six  hundred. 

Success  being  hopeless  Maha  Bandula  retreated  rapidly 


BA  TTLE   OF  PROME.  23 

to  Donoobu,  about  sixty  miles  from  Rangoon,  taking  with 
him  about  one  thousand  of  his  men.  The  soldiers  of  the 
investing  army  dispersed,  and  the  force  was  broken  up. 
The  British  now  occupied  the  southern  districts  of  the 
province  without  any  opposition,  including  the  ancient 
port  of  Martaban,  and  all  the  coast  of  Tenasserim  to  the 
south  as  far  as  Mergui.  Sir  Archibald  Campbell  was  now 
at  liberty  to  continue  operations  by  marching  up  the 
Irrawaddy.  The  end  of  the  year  being  at  hand,  and  rein- 
forcements having  arrived  from  India,  plans  were  formed 
for  marching  on  Prome,  where  it  was  hoped  the  Burmese 
government  would  be  ready  to  make  terms  of  peace. 

The  British  forces,  finding  themselves  free  to  march  up 
the  valley,  were  divided  into  two  columns.  General  Wil- 
loughby  Cotton  commanded  one  division,  which  was  to 
advance  by  the  river.  The  other  division  was  led  by  the 
commander-in-chief  in  person.  The  former  command  con- 
sisted of  eight  hundred  Europeans,  a  small  fleet  of  gun- 
boats, a  batallion  of  native  infantry,  and  the  steamer 
Snake.  No  doubts  of  success  were  entertained,  although 
the  number  of  men  seemed  small  for  the  undertaking. 
The  rainy  season  was  over  ;  the  surface  of  the  land  was 
dry,  and  the  land  force  moved  north  to  Hlaing  and  thence 
to  Sarawa  on  the  Irrawaddy.  It  reached  Donoobu  about 
March  25th,  and  found  that  Bandula  was  entrenched  in  a 
stockaded  enclosure  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  On 
reconnoitring  it  appeared  that  Bandula's  position  was 
strong,  and  an  assault  in  force  was  deemed  necessary.  At 
a  distance  of  about  three  hundred  yards  from  the  north- 
west angle  trenches  were  opened  and  batteries  erected. 
General  Cotton,  who  had  come  down  the  river,  arrived 
with  his  command  ;  the  heavy  guns  and  mortars  were 
placed  in  position,  and  firing  was  begun  and  continued 
with  little  intermission  for  some  hours.  The  assailants 
were  ready  to  storm  the  fort  early  in  the  morning  of 
April  25th,  when  it  was  found  that  the  enemy  had  evacu- 


24  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

ated  during  the  night.  Bandula  had  been  slain,  and  his 
brother,  who  succeeded  him,  could  not  hold  the  garrison 
together.  The  victors  found  large  stores  of  rice,  some 
guns  and  powder.  The  king  and  his  court  were  filled 
with  terror  at  this  overthrow.  The  court  faction,  of  which 
the  queen  and  her  brother  were  the  leaders,  persuaded 
the  king  to  remain  firm. 

General  Campbell  resumed  his  march  into  the  interior 
of  Burmah,  following  the  left  bank  of  the  river  and 
regulating  his  movements  by  those  of  the  flotilla,  which 
was  occasionally  halted  for  the  purpose  of  shelling  out  a 
stockade  or  buoying  the  channel.  Arriving  at  Prome,  he 
found  it  deserted  and  in  flames ;  the  Burmese  command- 
er had  driven  out  the  inhabitants  and  fired  the  town,  and 
more  than  half  of  it  was  destroyed.  As  the  rainy  season 
was  approaching,  the  British  force  went  into  cantonment 
at  Prome  and  remained  there  for  several  months,  and  as 
the  Burmese  were  occupied  with  the  work  of  assembling 
another  army,  the  invaders  were  not  disturbed.  The  time 
was  utilized  by  the  British  in  bringing  up  supplies  and 
ammunition  and  making  every  thing  ready  for  a  further 
advance  as  soon  as  the  dry  season  should  set  in.  In  the 
middle  of  August  General  Cotton  made  a  reconnaissance 
up  the  river  with  the  steamer,  and  at  Myedee  saw  a  Bur- 
mese force  of  about  twenty  thousand  men  drawn  up  in 
line  on  the  bank  of  the  river. 

Early  in  September  the  Burmese  sent  a  flag  of  truce 
with  an  officer  to  treat  for  peace;  an  armistice  of  forty 
days  was  agreed  upon  to  ascertain  the  terms  on  which  the 
British  could  be  persuaded  to  leave  the  country,  and  later 
on  it  was  extended  to  the  third  of  November.  The  terms 
demanded  at  the  end  of  the  armistice  were  the  cession 
of  the  provinces  of  Arracan,  Tavoy  and  Mergui  to  the 
British,  and  the  payment  of  a  war  indemnity  of  two 
million  pounds  sterling.  The  Burmese  replied  that  yield- 
ing territory  and  paying  money  were  not  in  accord  with 


BATTLE    OF  PROME.  2$ 

Burmese  customs.  They  had  succeeded  in  raising  an 
army  and  now  felt  that  they  could  successfully  cope  with 
the  British. 

Hostilities  were  resumed  at  once.  The  Burmese  army 
closed  around  Prome.  A  force  of  3,000  Shans  and  2,600 
Burmese  was  stationed  at  Wattigan  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  river,  about  twenty  miles  to  the  northeast.  The 
English  commander  decided  to  dislodge  them  immediately 
in  order  that  they  might  not  be  on  his  right  flank  in  a 
movement  to  the  front.  He  advanced  by  night  in  three 
columns  and  easily  defeated  the  Shans.  He  had  now  to 
attack  the  main  force  of  the  Burmese,  about  20,000  strong. 
General  Campbell's  force  for  this  attack  comprised  2,500 
Europeans  and  1,500  native  troops. 

The  Burmese  army  held  a  strong  and  well  fortified 
position  on  the  heights.  It  was  impossible  for  the  artillery 
to  operate,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  ground,  and  the 
position  was  carried  by  the  infantry  regiments  unassisted. 
The  British  loss  was  12  officers  and  160  men  killed  and 
wounded.  The  Burmese  in  these  engagements  lost  be- 
tween 2,000  and  3,000  men.  The  Shans  marched  back  to 
their  own  territory,  and  three  days  later  the  Burmese 
forces  on  the  west  side  of  the  river  were  compelled  to 
retreat  and  marched  northward,  following  their  main  army. 
Leaving  two  regiments  of  native  infantry  to  garrison 
Prome,  General  Campbell  continued  his  advance  on 
Myedee.  He  had  4,000  men  and  28  guns,  and  the  town 
was  taken  without  resistance.  The  terms  of  peace  were 
once  more  discussed  and  after  two  or  three  meetings  an 
agreement  was  signed  by  both  sides  and  in  order  that  the 
king  might  be  able  to  ratify  the  treaty,  a  cessation  of 
hostilities  for  fifteen  days  was  decided  upon.  At  the  ex- 
piration of  this  time  no  communication  had  been  received 
from  the  Burmese  commissioners  and  hostile  operations 
were  resumed  by  the  British.  Crossing  the  river  in  gun- 
boats the  fort  was  stormed,  after  a  destructive  cannonade. 


26  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

It  was  announced  to  the  king  that  they  would  move  for- 
ward to  Pugan,  there  to  await  the  ''atification  of  the 
treaty. 

The  war  faction  at  Ava  still  entertained  hopes  of  repair- 
ing the  losses  they  had  sustained.  A  few  more  desultory 
engagements  were  fought  in  which  the  natives  were 
defeated,  and  the  British  general  halted  at  Pugan  to 
await  the  arrival  of  the  detachments.  Moving  on  he 
arrived  at  Yandabo  and  formed  a  camp  within  four 
marches  of  the  capital.  Although  the  king  was  ready  to 
fly  northward  he  consented  to  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty 
of  peace.  One  fourth  of  the  million  sterling  which  was 
levied  to  pay  the  costs  of  the  war  was  handed  over  by  the 
Burmese  commissioners  who  were  willing  to  abide  by  the 
general  terms  previously  offered. 

No  discussion  was  made  and  the  treaty  was  signed. 
According  to  the  agreement,  Assam,  Arracan,  and  the 
coast  of  Tenasserim  with  the  part  of  the  state  of  Marta- 
ban  east  of  the  Salwan  River  were  given  to  the  British 
government.  The  king  of  Burmah  promised  to  refrain 
from  interference  in  Kashar,  Jyntia,  and  Manipur.  It 
was  also  determined  to  conclude  a  commercial  treaty  in 
a  short  time.  The  British  army  marched  back  to  Ran- 
goon, where  the  troops  remained  until  the  second  payment 
of  the  money  due  for  war  expenses  was  made.  This  was 
near  the  end  of  the  year,  and  then  the  city  was  evacuated. 

It  is  proper  to  remark  that  the  Burmese  soldier  fought 
under  disadvantages  which  made  it  impossible  for  him  to 
win.  These  peasant-soldiers  had  no  knowledge  of  military 
drill  and  discipline,  and  lacked  suitable  arms,  many  of 
them  carrying  only  their  native  swords  or  spears.  The 
artillery  corps  of  the  army  was  even  more  poorly  equipped 
than  the  infantry.  The  artillery  was  made  up  of  old  guns 
once  used  on  ships,  hardly  any  of  them  less  than  a  century 
old.  As  a  general  rule,  the  Burmese  ofificers  led  their 
soldiers  only  in  flight.     Yet,  notwithstanding  these  draw- 


BATTLE    OF  PROME. 


27 


backs,  the  poorly  armed  Burmese  peasant  feared  not  to 
encounter  the  well-equipped  Asiatic  troops,  commanded 
by  trained  European  officers.  He  was  overcome  only  by 
the  European  soldiers.  The  climate  was  a  far  more 
formidable  opponent  of  the  invaders  than  were  the  Bur- 
mese soldiery  ;  an  English  officer  remarked  of  this  cam- 
paign, that  if  the  climate  of  Burmah  had  been  thoroughly 
loyal  to  the  king  and  performed  its  duty,  the  British  would 
have  been  compelled  to  turn  back  from  Rangoon. 

The  engagement  at  Prome  may  be  regarded  as  the  de- 
cisive battle  of  the  first  Burmese  war.  True,  it  was  not  a 
brilliant  affair,  and  in  European  warfare  would  rank  as 
little  more  than  a  skirmish,  but  a  contrary  result  would 
have  placed  the  British  in  a  position  of  great  danger. 
The  European  troops  were  greatly  reduced  both  in  num- 
bers and  efficiency  by  the  effects  of  the  climate,  and  the 
native  troops  could  not  be  relied  on  for  good  work  unless 
with  European  support.  A  signal  defeat  at  Prome  would 
have  resulted  in  a  retreat  on  Rangoon,  and  it  has  been 
shown  elsewhere  how  precarious  was  the  hold  on  that  city 
in  the  early  days  of  the  invasion. 

The  first  Burmese  war  was  the  beginning  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  kingdom  which  was  once  a  power  among  Asi- 
atic nations  and  a  terror  to  its  neighbors.  In  1852  the 
imprisonment  of  the  master  of  a  ship  and  other  British 
subjects  led  to  the  second  Burmese  war,  which  resulted  in 
the  annexation  of  a  considerable  part  of  Burmese  territory 
to  the  British  Indian  possessions.  The  war  began  with 
the  bombardment  of  Rangoon,  April  11,  1852,  and  its 
capture  three  days  later.  Prome,  Bassein,  Martaban,  and 
other  cities  one  after  another  fell  into  British  hands  ;  the 
British  forces  were  almost  invariably  successful,  and  in  a 
few  months  peace  was  declared  and  the  whole  of  the  coast 
provinces  of  Burmah  passed  under  British  sway. 

The  third  Burmese  war  (1885)  grew  out  of  the  inter- 
ference of  the  king  with  the  rights  of  British  subjects  in 


28  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

Burmah  and  his  violation  of  the  provisions  of  a  commercial 
treaty.  He  refused  all  reparation  of  the  wrongs  he  had 
committed,  and  thus  rendered  necessary  an  appeal  to 
arms.  A  British  army  invaded  the  country,  and  after  a 
few  insignificant  skirmishes  occupied  the  capital  and  ended 
the  war.  The  king  was  deposed  and  sent  to  a  designated 
place  of  retirement  on  the  Upper  Irrawaddy ;  the  British 
power  was  extended  over  the  whole  of  Burmah,  and  the 
dynasty  of  Alompra  came  to  an  end. 


CHAPTER  III. 

BATTLE    OF   NAVARINO — 1 827. 

From  1815  to  1830  all  the  wars  of  Europe  were  with 
the  Mohammedans,  except  a  few  revolutionary  and  other 
affairs  of  no  great  consequence.  The  English  made  an 
attack  on  Algiers  in  1816  to  punish  the  Algerines  for 
their  piracies  and  for  their  cruelties  to  British  subjects, 
and  fourteen  years  later  the  same  place  was  captured  by 
the  French  and  has  since  been  held  with  a  firm  grasp. 
The  Greek  revolution,  which  broke  out  in  1S21,  was  the 
revolt  of  Christians  held  in  subjection  by  the  Turks,  the 
Moslem  conquerors  of  Southeastern  Europe,  who  had 
ruled  the  Hellenes  with  great  oppression,  and  the  struggle 
was  continued  until  the  independence  of  Greece  was 
acknowledged.  The  war  of  Russia  against  the  Persians, 
in  1826,  was  also  a  fight  between  Christianity  and  Islam, 
and  so  was  the  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  1828. 
Even  the  English  in  India  were  contending  against  the 
Moslems  more  than  against  warriors  of  other  religions  of 
the  great  peninsula,  especially  in  their  campaign  to  the 
north,  when  they  penetrated  the  stronghold  of  Islam  in 
Central  Asia.  The  exhaustion  which  followed  the  Napo- 
leonic campaigns  left  Europe  at  peace  with  itself,  but  did 
not  restrain  it  from  hostile  encounters  with  the  followers 
of  the  Prophet  of  Mecca. 

The  Spanish  revolution  of  1820,  which  was  speedily 
followed  by  the  revolutions  of  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Pied- 
mont, caused  a  great  excitement  throughout  Europe,  and 

29 


CHAPTER  III. 


BATTLE    OF   NAVARINO — 1 827. 


From  1815  to  1830  all  the  wars  of  Europe  were  with 
the  Mohammedans,  except  a  few  revolutionary  and  other 
affairs  of  no  great  consequence.  The  English  made  an 
attack  on  Algiers  in  18 16  to  punish  the  Algerines  for 
their  piracies  and  for  their  cruelties  to  British  subjects, 
and  fourteen  years  later  the  same  place  was  captured  by 
the  French  and  has  since  been  held  with  a  firm  grasp. 
The  Greek  revolution,  which  broke  out  in  1S21,  was  the 
revolt  of  Christians  held  in  subjection  by  the  Turks,  the 
Moslem  conquerors  of  Southeastern  Europe,  who  had 
ruled  the  Hellenes  with  great  oppression,  and  the  struggle 
was  continued  until  the  independence  of  Greece  was 
acknowledged.  The  war  of  Russia  against  the  Persians, 
in  1826,  was  also  a  fight  between  Christianity  and  Islam, 
and  so  was  the  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  1828. 
Even  the  English  in  India  were  contending  against  the 
Moslems  more  than  against  warriors  of  other  religions  of 
the  great  peninsula,  especially  in  their  campaign  to  the 
north,  when  they  penetrated  the  stronghold  of  Islam  in 
Central  Asia.  The  exhaustion  which  followed  the  Napo- 
leonic campaigns  left  Europe  at  peace  with  itself,  but  did 
not  restrain  it  from  hostile  encounters  with  the  followers 
of  the  Prophet  of  Mecca. 

The  Spanish  revolution  of  1820,  which  was  speedily 
followed  by  the  revolutions  of  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Pied- 
mont, caused  a  great  excitement  throughout  Europe,  and 


30  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

paved  the  way  for  the  Greek  revolution  of  1821.  Since 
the  beginning  of  the  century  the  Greeks  had  been  pre- 
paring for  the  struggle  ;  in  fact,  for  more  than  fifty  years 
there  had  been  a  general  movement  in  the  direction  of 
independence  through  the  spirit  of  nationality,  which  was 
taught  by  the  ablest  writers  and  spread  among  the  people 
as  widely  as  possible.  There  had  been  many  insurrections 
against  the  Turkish  authority,  but  they  were  generally 
suppressed  without  difficulty,  though  with  the  shedding 
of  much  Greek  blood.  Nearly  every  village  in  Greece 
suffered  from  pillage  by  the  Turks,  and  the  families  were 
comparatively  few  that  did  not  mourn  a  father,  son,  or 
brother,  killed  by  the  Turks  or  carried  into  slavery,  or  a 
daughter  or  sister  transported  to  a  Turkish  harem.  In 
spite  of  four  centuries  of  captivity,  the  Greeks  had  pre- 
served their  language,  dress,  religion,  and  other  distinctive 
features  of  nationality.  In  this  they  were  greatly  assisted 
by  the  severity  of  the  Turks  and  the  difference  in  man- 
ners, laws,  religion,  and  customs  between  oppressor  and 
oppressed. 

But  notwithstanding  their  subjugation,  many  of  the 
Greeks  were  commercially  prosperous,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  trafific  of  the  East  was  in  their  hands.  They  con- 
ducted nearly  all  the  coasting  trade  of  the  Levant,  and  a 
few  years  before  the  revolution  they  had  six  hundred 
vessels  mounting  six  thousand  guns  (for  defence  against 
pirates)  and  manned  by  eighteen  thousand  seamen.  The 
trade  had  grown  enormously  during  the  continental  wars 
which  ended  at  Waterloo,  as  nearly  all  the  nations  of 
Europe  were  so  engrossed  in  military  matters  that  there 
was  no  chance  for  commerce.  The  large  fleet  of  the 
Greeks  was  dreaded  by  the  Turks,  and  the  islands  where 
most  of  the  commerce  was  centred  were  not  treated  with 
the  severity  which  the  Turks  exercised  towards  those 
dwelling  on  the  mainland.  The  islands  were  shunned  by 
the  pashas,  who  contented  themselves  with  exacting  an 


BATTLE   OF  NAVARIXO.  3 1 

annual  tribute,  and  after  its  payment  the  inhabitants  were 
left  to  themselves.  This  was  particularly  the  case  with 
Hydra,  Ipsara,  and  Scio,  the  two  former  with  thirty 
thousand  inhabitants  each,  and  the  latter  having  eighty 
thousand.  But  their  prosperity  and  happiness  only 
served  to  make  plain  to  the  people  of  the  mainland  how 
much  they  were  suffering  at  the  hands  of  their  Turkish 
masters,  and  how  vastly  superior  to  their  own  was  the 
condition  of  the  islanders. 

In  laying  their  plans  for  independence  the  Greeks  re- 
sorted to  the  formation  of  secret  societies,  and  so  well  was 
the  scheme  conducted  that  every  thing  was  ripe  for  in- 
surrection before  the  Turkish  rulers  had  any  suspicion  of 
the  state  of  affairs.  A  great  association  was  formed  which 
included  Greeks  everywhere,  not  only  in  Greece  and  its 
islands,  but  in  Constantinople,  Austria,  Germany,  Eng- 
land, and  other  countries,  wherever  a  Greek  could  be 
found.  Men  of  other  nationalities  were  occasionally  ad- 
mitted, but  only  when  their  loyalty  to  the  Greek  cause 
was  beyond  question,  and  their  official  positions  gave 
them  a  chance  to  aid  in  the  work.  Several  distinguished 
Russians  were  members,  among  them  Count  Capo  D'Istria, 
a  Greek  by  birth,  who  held  the  office  of  private  secretary 
to  the  Emperor  Alexander  I.  of  Russia.  The  society  was 
known  as  the  Hetaira,  or  Hetairist,  and  consisted  of 
several  degrees  or  grades.  The  highest  contained  only 
sixteen  persons,  whose  names  were  not  all  known,  and  it 
was  impossible  for  any  member  of  the  lower  classes  to 
ascertain  them.  Count  Capo  DTstria  was  one  of  the 
exalted  sixteen,  and  it  was  whispered  that  the  Czar 
Alexander  was  another  of  the  highest  members  of  the 
order,  together  with  the  Crown  Prince  of  Bavaria  and 
Wurtemberg,  the  Hospodar  of  Wallachia,  and  other  im- 
portant men  of  the  day.  In  this  matter  of  glorious  un- 
certainty regarding  its  highest  members,  the  Hetaira  was 
not  unlike  secret  societies  of  more  modern  times. 


32  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

The  affairs  of  the  society  were  managed  by  the  sixteen 
members  of  the  highest  class,  who  had  their  seat  at  Mos- 
cow and  maintained  a  ruling  committee  in  almost  perpet- 
ual session.  The  second  class  was  called  the  Priests  of 
Elaisis,  and  they  were  informed  in  a  general  way  that  the 
time  for  struggle  with  the  Turks  was  approaching,  but 
nothing  more  definite  was  told  to  them.  This  class 
included  nearly  all  the  Greek  priests,  and  also  no  less 
than  one  hundred  and  sixteen  prelates  of  their  religion. 
The  third  class  was  the  Systemenoi,  or  Bachelors,  selected 
with  care  from  the  better  classes  of  society  ;  they  were 
informed  that  the  object  of  the  society  was  to  effect  a 
revolution  and  separate  Greece  from  Turkey.  The  lower 
class,  which  included  every  Greek  who  wished  to  join  it, 
was  by  far  the  largest  ;  the  only  information  that  was 
given  to  this  class  was  that  the  object  was  to  ameliorate 
the  condition  of  the  people  by  the  spread  of  education 
and  by  securing  changes  in  the  laws.  The  secret  of  the 
society  was  kept  in  the  most  remarkable  manner  ;  though 
having  such  a  large  membership  it  was  betrayed  but  once, 
and  then  in  such  a  way  that  no  suspicion  was  excited. 
The  Turks  were  as  much  astonished  when  the  society 
revealed  itself  in  the  outburst  of  the  revolution  of  1821 
as  though  a  volcano  had  opened  under  their  feet. 

All  the  Hetairists  looked  hopefully  towards  Russia, 
partly  in  consequence  of  their  community  of  religion, 
and  partly  because  of  the  fellow-feeling  of  the  two 
countries  in  cordially  detesting  the  Turk.  The  Empress 
Catherine  excited  two  insurrections  in  Greece  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  the  Turkish  fleet 
had  been  burned  by  the  Russians  in  the  Bay  of  Tchesm6  ; 
Constantine  was  christened  by  that  name  because  the 
empress  designed  him  as  the  successor  of  Constantine 
Paleologus,  the  last  of  the  Caesars ;  and  the  intervention 
of  the  European  powers  in  1789  had  alone  prevented  the 
accomplishment  of  that  design.     The  Greeks  could  hardly 


BATTLE    OF  NAVARINO.  33 

doubt  that  the  Russians  would  help  them  when  the  strug- 
gle came,  and,  furthermore,  they  could  expect  little  aid 
from  other  European  powers,  who  were  principally  desir- 
ous of  maintaining  the  Turk  in  Europe  in  order  that 
Turkey  might  always  engage  the  attention  of  Russia, 
thereby  keeping  her  away  from  attacks  on  the  other 
states. 

An  occurrence  of  1819  caused  much  attention  through- 
out Europe,  and  illustrated  the  devotion  of  the  Greeks  to 
their  country  and  their  detestation  of  the  Turks.  The 
town  of  Parga,  on  the  sea-coast  of  the  mainland,  opposite 
the  Ionian  Isles,  was  ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of 
Tilsit  in  1807,  ^"<^  transferred  to  England  in  1814; 
during  these  seven  years  it  was  occupied  by  a  French 
garrison,  and  its  inhabitants  learned  to  enjoy  the  advan- 
tages of  Christian  protection.  In  the  treaty  of  1815  no 
mention  of  Parga  was  made,  and  it  was  stipulated  that 
the  entire  mainland  of  Turkey  was  to  be  ceded  to  the 
Porte.  This  gave  Parga  to  the  Turks,  and  the  govern- 
ment of  Constantinople  notified  the  British  governor  of 
the  Ionian  Islands  that  it  was  about  to  take  possession. 
Parga  had  then  been  held  for  a  year  or  more  by  a  British 
garrison,  and  the  governor  of  the  Ionian  Islands  promised 
that  the  garrison  should  not  be  withdrawn  until  the  Turks 
paid  for  the  property  of  such  as  would  not  remain  under 
their  rule. 

All  the  inhabitants  determined  to  emigrate  to  the 
Ionian  Islands.  The  amount  of  the  compensation  was 
agreed  upon  by  the  commissioners,  and  one  day,  in  June, 
1819,  the  inhabitants  marched  solemnly  out  of  their 
houses  and  proceeded  to  the  cemetery,  where  they  dug  up 
the  bones  of  their  ancestors  and  carried  them  to  a  large 
pile  of  wood  in  front  of  the  church.  There  these  treas- 
ured remains  were  consumed  by  fire,  and  while  the  pile 
was  burning  scarcely  a  word  was  spoken.  During  the 
ceremony  some  of  the  Turkish  soldiers,  who  were  about 


34  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

to  enter,  approached  the  gate,  whereupon  a  deputation  of 
citizens  went  to  the  English  governor  and  told  him  that 
if  a  single  Turk  was  admitted  before  the  bones  of  their 
ancestors  were  secured  from  profanation,  and  they  and 
their  families  were  safely  embarked,  they  would  instantly 
kill  their  wives  and  children,  and  die  with  arms  in  their 
hands  after  slaughtering  as  many  as  possible  of  those  who 
had  bought  and  sold  their  homes.  The  message  was 
conveyed  to  the  Turks  who  did  not  renew  their  attempt 
to  enter  until  the  whole  party  had  embarked.  When 
they  took  possession  of  Parga  they  found  but  one  inhabi- 
tant remaining — a  man  far  gone  in  a  state  of  intoxi- 
cation. 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  revolution,  or  rather  the 
excuse  for  it,  was  the  death  of  the  Hospodar  of  Wallachia, 
January  30,  1821,  followed  by  the  appointment  of  his  suc- 
cessor. During  the  interregnum,  which  naturally  left  the 
government  in  a  weakened  condition,  the  Hetairists  de- 
termined to  strike  their  blow  for  liberty.  A  band  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  Greeks  and  Arnauts,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Theodore  Vladimiruko,  formerly  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  Russian  service,  marched  out  of  Bucharest 
and  seized  the  small  town  of  Czernitz,  near  Trajan's 
Bridge,  on  the  Danube.  There  Theodore  issued  a 
proclamation,  and  such  was  the  feeling  of  discontent 
among  the  people,  that  in  a  few  days  he  had  a  force  of 
twelve  thousand  men  under  his  command.  Soon  after- 
wards there  was  an  insurrection  in  Jassy,  the  capital  of 
Moldavia,  headed  by  Prince  Alexander  Ipsilanti,  an  of^- 
cer  in  the  Russian  service.  He  issued  a  proclamation  in 
which  the  aid  of  Russia  was  distinctly  promised,  and  as 
the  news  of  this  proclamation  was  carried  to  Greece,  there 
was  a  general  movement  in  favor  of  insurrection.  The 
Russian  minister  assured  the  Porte  that  his  government 
had  nothing  to  do  with  the  insurrection,  and  the  Patriarch 
and  Synod  of  Constantinople  issued  a  proclamation  em- 


BATTLE   OF  NAVARINO.  35 

phatically  denouncing  the  movement,  but  in  spite  of  this 
assurance  and  proclamation  the  insurrection  went  on. 

Count  Nesselrode  declared  ofificially  that  Ipsilanti's 
name  would  be  stricken  from  the  Russian  army  list,  and 
that  his  act  was  one  for  which  he  alone  was  responsible. 
This  announcement  was  the  death-blow  of  the  insurrec- 
tion in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  as  the  forces  of  Theo- 
dore and  Ipsilanti  were  suppressed,  after  some  sharp  fight- 
ing, by  the  hordes  of  Moslems  that  were  brought  against 
them.  The  Russians  on  the  Pruth  and  the  Black  Sea 
were  ordered  to  observe  the  strictest  neutralit}-,  and  made 
no  interference  whatever  with  the  movements  of  the 
Turks.  Nearly  the  whole  of  Greece  was  in  full  insurrec- 
tion in  a  few  months,  and  with  far  better  prospects  than 
had  the  insurrection  on  the  Danube.  Turks  and  Greeks 
were  embittered  against  each  other  ;  the  war-cry  of  the 
Turk  was,  "  Death  to  the  Christian  !  "  while  that  of  the 
Christian  was,  "  Death  to  the  Turk  !  "  The  example  was 
set  by  the  Turks,  and,  to  the  eternal  disgrace  of  the  Turk- 
ish government,  slaughter  in  cold  blood  was  made  official. 

It  was  by  the  order  and  authority  of  the  Porte  that 
Gregory,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  a  revered  prelate, 
eighty  years  of  age,  was  seized  on  Easter  Sunday,  as  he 
was  decending  from  the  altar  where  he  had  been  celebrat- 
ing divine  service,  and  hanged  at  the  gate  of  his  archiepis- 
copal  palace,  amid  the  shouts  and  howls  of  a  Moslem 
mob.  After  hanging  three  hours,  the  body  was  cut 
down  and  delivered  to  some  Jews,  who  dragged  it  about 
the  streets  and  threw  it  into  the  sea,  whence  it  was 
recovered  the  same  night  by  some  Christian  fishermen. 

Some  weeks  later  it  was  taken  to  Odessa  and  buried 
with  great  ceremony.  This  act  of  murder  was  the  more 
atrocious  on  the  part  of  the  Turks,  since  the  patriarch  had 
denounced  the  insurrection  in  a  public  proclamation,  and 
his  life  and  character  were  most  blameless  and  exemplary. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  this  barbarity  had  more  to  do  with 


36  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

fanning  the  fires  of  revolt  than  any  other  act  of  the  Turk- 
ish government.  But  it  was  by  no  means  the  only  act 
of  tlie  kind  of  which  the  Turks  were  guilty. 

The  Patriarch  of  Adrianople  with  eight  of  his  ecclesias- 
tics was  beheaded,  and  so  were  the  dragoman  of  the  Porte 
and  several  other  eminent  residents  of  Constantinople,  de- 
scended from  Greek  settlers  of  two  or  three  centuries  ago. 
Churches  were  everywhere  broken  open  and  plundered; 
Greek  citizens  of  the  highest  rank  were  murdered,  their 
property  stolen,  and  their  wives  and  daughters  sold  as 
slaves  ;  on  the  15th  of  June  five  archbishops  and  a  great 
number  of  laymen  were  hanged  in  the  streets,  and  four 
hundred  and  fifty  mechanics  were  sold  and  transported 
into  slavery  ;  at  Salonica  the  battlements  of  the  town 
were  lined  with  Christian  heads,  from  which  the  blood 
ran  down  and  discolored  the  water  in  the  ditch.  In  all 
the  great  towns  of  the  empire  there  were  similar  atroci- 
ties ;  some  were  the  work  of  mobs,  which  the  authorities 
did  not  seek  to  restrain,  but  the  greater  part  of  them  were 
ordered  by  the  governors  or  other  officials,  and  met  the 
approval  of  the  Porte.  At  Smyrna,  the  Christian  popula- 
tion was  massacred  by  thousands  without  regard  to  age 
or  sex,  and  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  a  body  of  ten  thou- 
sand troops  sent  by  the  Porte  ravaged  the  island,  exe- 
cuted the  metropolitan,  five  bishops,  and  thirty-six  other 
ecclesiastics,  and  converted  the  whole  island  into  a  scene 
of  rapine,  bloodshed,  and  robbery.  Several  thousand 
Christians  were  killed  before  the  atrocities  ceased,  and 
hundreds  of  their  wives  and  daughters  were  carried  into 
Turkish  harems. 

These  and  similar  outrages  plainly  told  the  Greeks  that 
no  hope  remained  except  in  complete  independence  of  the 
Turks,  and  from  one  end  of  Greece  to  the  other  the  fires 
of  insurrection  were  everywhere  lighted.  The  islands,  as 
well  as  the  mainland,  were  in  full  revolt,  and  the  fleet  of 
coasting  vessels,  nearly  all   of  them  armed  for  resisting 


BA  TTLE    OF  NA  VARINO.  37 

pirates,  gave  the  Turks  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  Its  first 
operation  was  to  destroy  a  Turkish  seventy-four-gun  ship 
that  had  run  aground  in  the  Bay  of  Adramyti,  together 
with  eight  hundred  men  of  her  crew.  The  Turkish  ad- 
miral was  so  alarmed  at  the  disaster  that  he  retired  with 
the  rest  of  his  fleet  to  the  Dardanelles,  leaving  the  com- 
mand of  the  archipelago  and  the  coast  of  Greece  to  the 
Greek  cruisers. 

On  the  land,  battle  followed  battle  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  and  the  narration  of  the  events  of  the  insur- 
rection would  fill  a  bulky  volume.  It  is  not  our  purpose 
to  present  a  history  of  the  Greek  revolution  ;  we  will  give 
briefly,  a  summary  of  the  events  between  the  opening  of 
the  struggle  and  the  battle  of  Navarino,  which  was  prac- 
tically the  end  of  the  war  for  independence. 

During  the  latter  part  of  i82i,the  advantages  to  the 
Greeks  were  sufificient  to  encourage  them  to  proclaim 
their  independence,  which  was  done  in  January,  1S22. 
In  the  same  month  the  Turks  besieged  Corinth,  and  in  the 
following  April  they  besieged  and  captured  Chios  (Scio), 
ending  the  capture  with  the  slaughter  of  forty  thousand 
inhabitants,  the  most  horrible  massacre  of  modern  times. 
In  July,  the  Greeks  were  victorious  at  Thermopylae  ;  in 
the  same  month  Corinth  fell,  with  great  slaughter  of  the 
defenders.  In  April,  1823,  the  Greeks  held  a  national  con- 
gress at  Argos  ;  the  victories  of  Marco  Bozzaris  occurred 
in  the  following  June,  and  in  August  he  was  killed  in  a 
night  attack  upon  the  Turkish  camp  ;  in  August,  too, 
Lord  Byron  landed  at  Athens  to  take  part  in  the  cause 
of  Greece,  which  was  attracting  the  attention  of  the 
whole  civilized  world.  The  first  Greek  loan  was  issued 
in  England  in  February,  1824;  Lord  Byron  died  at  Mis- 
solonghi  in  the  following  April ;  in  August  the  Capitan 
Pasha  was  defeated  at  Samos  with  heavy  loss ;  in  October, 
the  provisional  government  of  Greece  was  set  up;  and  the 
fighting  became  almost  continuous  in  the  mountain  dis- 


38  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

tricts  of  Greece.  In  February,  1825,  Ibrahim  Pasha  ar- 
rived with  a  powerful  army  from  Egypt,  which  captured 
Navarino  in  May,  and  TripoHtza  in  June  of  the  same 
year.  In  July,  the  provisional  government  invoked  the 
aid  of  England;  in  the  following  April  (1826),  Ibrahim 
Pasha  took  Missolonghi  after  a  long  and  heroic  defence  ; 
and  nearly  a  year  later  Reschid  Pasha  captured  Athens. 

Down  to  the  beginning  of  1826,  the  Greeks  had  felt 
seriously  the  deprivation  of  Russian  sympathy  and  aid  for 
which  they  had  been  led  to  look  before  the  revolution. 
The  death  of  Alexander  I.,  and  the  accession  of  Nicholas 
in  December,  1825,  caused  a  change  in  the  situation.  The 
British  government  sent  the  Duke  of  Wellington  to  St. 
Petersburg  ostensibly  to  congratulate  Nicholas  on  his  ele- 
vation to  the  throne,  but  really  to  secure  concert  of  action 
in  regard  to  Greece.  On  the  4th  of  April  a  protocol  was 
signed  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  Prince  Eleven,  and 
Count  Nesselrode,  which  may  be  considered  the  founda- 
tion of  Greek  independence. 

Out  of  this  protocol  grew  the  treaty  of  July  6,  1827, 
between  England,  Russia,  and  France,  by  which  it  was 
stipulated  that  those  nations  should  mediate  between  the 
contending  Greeks  and  Turks.  They  proposed  to  the 
Sultan  that  he  should  retain  a  nominal  authority  over  the 
Greeks,  but  receive  from  them  a  fixed  annual  tribute,  to 
be  collected  by  the  Greek  authorities,  in  whose  nomina- 
tion the  Sultan  should  have  a  voice.  All  Mussulman 
property  in  Greece  was  to  be  abandoned  upon  receipt  of 
an  indemnity,  and  all  fortresses  were  to  be  given  up  to 
the  Greek  troops.  If  the  Porte  did  not  accept  these 
terms  within  a  month,  it  was  very  plainly  announced  that 
the  powers  would  for  their  own  security  "  come  to  an 
approximation  with  the  Greeks,  which  would  consist  in 
establishing  commercial  relations  with  Greece,  and  receiv- 
ing from  it  commercial  agents."  In  very  forcible  terms 
this  meant  that  the  independence  of  the  Greeks  would  be 
acknowledsred. 


BA  TTLE    OF  NA  VARINO.  39 

The  Sultan  expressed  the  utmost  astonishment  at  this 
proposal,  and  declared  his  fixed  determination  to  subdue 
his  rebellious  Greek  subjects.  He  refused  to  listen  to  the 
scheme  of  mediation,  and  immediately  made  preparations 
for  a  fresh  campaign,  and  also  for  the  defence  of  Turkey 
in  case  of  an  attack.  Ships  and  reinforcements  were  sent 
from  Constantinople,  and  the  Egyptian  f^eet,  consisting  of 
two  84-gun  ships,  twelve  frigates,  and  forty-one  transports, 
was  despatched  from  Alexandria  with  five  thousand  troops, 
and  reached  Navarino  towards  the  end  of  August,  1827. 
The  allied  powers  had  foreseen  the  possibility  of  the  Porte's 
refusal  of  mediation,  and  taken  measures  accordingly  ;  an 
English  fleet  under  Admiral  Sir  Edward  Codrington,  and 
a  French  fleet  under  Admiral  Dc  Rigny,  were  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  were  shortly  afterwards  joined  by  the 
Russian  fleet  under  Admiral  Heiden.  A  final  note  was 
presented  to  the  Porte  late  in  August,  and  as  it  had  no 
effect  other  than  a  refusal  to  permit  mediation,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  powers  determined  to  take  measures  for 
enforcing  a  suspension  of  hostilities. 

The  allied  admirals  held  a  conference,  and  decided  to 
notify  Ibrahim  Pasha  that  he  must  stop  the  barbarities  of 
plundering  and  burning  villages  and  slaughtering  their  in- 
habitants. But  Ibrahim  would  not  listen  to  their  remon- 
strances, and  to  show  his  utter  disregard  for  the  powers, 
he  commanded  four  of  his  ships  to  sail  to  the  Gulf  of 
Patras  to  occupy  Missolonghi  and  relieve  some  Turkish 
forts,  in  effect  to  clear  those  waters  of  every  Greek  man- 
of-war  which  was  stationed  there.  This  he  did  easily,  the 
allied  squadrons  being  temporarily  absent.  Admiral 
Codrington  pursued  him  and,  without  difficult}-,  drove  him 
back  to  Navarino.  The  flagship  Asia  (84  guns)  was  the 
only  vessel  engaged.  The  admiral  detained  the  Turkish 
fleet  at  Navarino,  and  there  he  determined  it  should  re- 
main until  a  satisfactory  agreement  could  be  made  be- 
tween  the    Porte   and   the  powers.      Although  some  hos- 


40  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

tilities  had  occurred,  no  actual  battles  had  yet  been  fought, 
and  the  belief  of  a  peaceful  solution  was  entertained.  As 
a  last  resort  Colonel  Cradoch  was  sent  by  Admiral  Cod- 
rington  to  meet  Ibrahim  Pasha.  The  effort  was  useless  ; 
the  Turkish  commander  could  not  be  seen.  A  general 
muster  of  all  the  ships  was  ordered  by  Admiral  Codring- 
ton,  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  squadron. 

The  strength  of  the  combined  squadron  was  as  follows : 

ENGLISH. 

4  frigates, 
I  cutter, 
4  brigs,  and 

3  line-of-battle  ships,  all   under  the  command  of  Ad- 
miral Codrington. 

RUSSIAN. 

4  frigates,  and 

4  line-of-battle  ships.  Count  Heiden  commanding. 

FRENCH. 

1  double-banked  frigate,    1 

2  cutters,  L  commanded    by    Rear-Ad- 

3  line-of-battle  ships,  and    j       miral    De    Rigny. 
I  frigate. 

The  Ottoman  fleet  was  as  follows  : 
13  frigates, 

3  line-of-battle  ships, 

4  double-banked  frigates, 
28  brigs, 

5  schooners, 

30  corvettes,  and 

6  fire  brigs,  making  a  total  of  89,  excluding  41  trans- 
ports. 

The  allied  fleet  mounted  1,324  guns,  while  the  combined 
Turkish  and  Egyptian  fleet  mounted  2,240  guns.  To  this 
superiority  in  the  number  of  guns  on  board  must  be  added 
the  batteries  on  shore,  which  were  all  in  the  hands  of  the 
Turks.     But  the  Christians  had  a  point  in  their  favor  in 


41 


42  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

their  superiority  in  ships  of  the  Hne,  of  which  they  pos- 
sessed ten,  while. the  Turks  had  but  three  ;  if  the  battle 
had  been  fought  in  the  open  sea,  it  would  have  been  of 
brief  duration,  but  this  advantage  was  very  much  lost  in 
the  Bay  of  Navarino,  where  the  Turkish  ships  were 
crowded  together  under  the  batteries  in  the  form  of  a 
semicircle,  with  their  broadsides  turned  to  the  centre  of 
the  bay.  The  Bay  of  Navarino  is  four  miles  long  and  two 
miles  wide.  It  is  shaped  like  a  horseshoe,  and  forms  a 
good-sized  harbor.  At  the  narrowing  ends,  about  a  mile 
apart,  were  batteries,  placed  to  sweep  the  entire  plain  in 
front.  The  united  Egyptian  and  Turkish  fleet  was  an- 
chored in  this  bay,  disposed  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent,  the 
Egyptian  portion  being  stationed  in  the  centre. 

The  allied  fleet  entered  the  Bay  of  Navarino  about  two 
o'clock  on  the  afternoon  of  October  20,  1827.  The  ad- 
vance was  in  two  columns,  the  British  and  French  forming 
the  starboard  column  and  the  Russians  the  port.  Every 
man  was  at  his  post,  the  decks  were  clear  for  action,  the 
gunners  were  ready  with  the  implements  of  their  occupa- 
tion, and  everybody  waited  the  first  shot  from  the  Turks. 
The  batteries  were  silent  as  the  fleet  filed  past  them,  and 
not  a  shot  was  heard  as  the  various  vessels  took  up  their 
positions. 

Admiral  Codrington  moored  his  flag-ship,  the  Asia, 
directly  opposite  and  between  the  Capitan  Bey  and  the 
Moliarcni  Bey,  the  two  largest  ships  of  the  Ottoman  fleet. 
Admiral  Rigny  took  up  a  position  to  the  windward  of  the 
Egyptian  ships,  and  the  Russians  moved  to  the  leeward  in 
the  bend  of  the  crescent.  The  admiral  ordered  that  the  allies 
should  not  fire  a  shot  until  they  were  fired  upon  by  the 
Turks.  This  order  was  rigidly  obeyed.  There  was  every 
indication  that  the  Turks  meant  to  fight.  While  the  rear 
portion  of  the  allied  fleets  was  getting  into  position,  a 
boat  containing  Lieut.  Fitz-Roy  and  some  men  was  sent 
from   the  Dartmouth  to   reconnoitre  a  Turkish  f«re-ship. 


BATTLE    OF  NAVAKINO.  43 

Nearly  at  the  same  moment  a  boat  was  lowered  from  the 
Asia  to  carry  her  pilot,  Mitchell,  with  a  flag  of  truce  to 
repeat  to  the  Turkish  commander  that  the  desire  of  the 
allies  was  for  peace.  Lieut.  Fitz-Roy's  boat,  while  ap- 
proaching the  fire-ship,  received  a  volley  of  musketry. 
The  Asms  pinnace,  having  on  board  the  pilot  and  a  flag 
of  truce,  shared  a  like  fate  ;  the  guns  opened  fire,  and  the 
fight  became  general. 

During  all  the  manoeuvring  the  two  Turkish  line-of- 
battle  ships  which  confronted  the  Asia  maintained  a  per- 
sistent silence.  But  as  soon  as  the  pinnace  had  been  sunk, 
they  fired  a  broadside  into  the  Asia,  which  heeled  over  for 
a  moment  ;  as  she  righted,  she  delivered  her  broadside 
with  splendid  aim.  The  firing  was  rapid,  and  in  a  little 
while  the  two  antagonists  of  the  Asia  were  helpless 
wrecks.  Both  their  cables  had  been  shot  away,  and  the- 
wind  wafted  them  towards  the  entrance  of  the  harbor. 

But  the  Asia  did  not  escape  unharmed  in  her  fight 
with  two  of  the  enemy's  ships  at  once.  Both  her  broad- 
sides were  kept  going  as  fast  as  possible,  and  very  soon 
she  was  so  enveloped  in  smoke  that  nothing  could  be 
seen.  She  received  many  shot  in  her  upper  works ;  her 
mizzen-mast  was  carried  away ;  her  other  masts  were  in- 
jured, and  several  of  her  guns  were  disabled.  The  disap- 
pearance of  her  two  antagonists  exposed  her  to  the  fire 
of  the  second  and  third  line  ;  she  maintained  her  position 
until  the  end  of  the  battle,  and  practically  fired  the  last 
shot.  At  one  time  she  appeared  to  be  in  flames,  and 
there  was  great  anxiety  through  the  allied  fleet.  There 
was  corresponding  relief  when  the  smoke  cleared  awa)-, 
and  it  was  found  that  an  Egyptian  ship  near  the  Asia 
had  blown  up  and  was  on  fire.  Part  of  her  crew  had 
escaped  by  swimming  to  the  shore,  and  the  rest  had 
perished.  Cheer  upon  cheer  went  up  from  the  allies  when 
it  was  found  that  the  Asia  was  unharmed. 

Almost    simultaneously    with    the    attack    upon    the 


44  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Asias  pinnace  that  brought  on  the  battle,  a  cannon- 
shot  was  fired  from  an  Egyptian  ship  against  the  Sirene, 
the  flag-ship  of  the  French  admiral.  The  Sirene  im- 
mediately replied,  and  soon  made  an  end  of  her  assailant ; 
but  during  the  fight  the  Turks  sent  a  fire-ship  against  her, 
and  it  is  probable  that  she  would  have  been  destroyed, 
had  it  not  been  for  the  intervention  of  Captain  Fellowes 
of  the  Dartmo7itli.  On  their  side  of  the  line,  the  Rus- 
sians did  some  excellent  work  ;  in  fact,  every  ship  of  the 
allied  fleet  was  engaged,  and  it  was  not  long  before  the 
superior  discipline  and  drill  of  the  Christians  had  their 
effect  on  the  infidels.  One  after  another  the  Ottoman 
ships  went  down,  or  were  drifted  ashore,  and  in  less  than 
four  hours  from  the  beginning  of  the  contest  the  Ottoman 
fleet  had  ceased  to  be.  Every  armed  ship  was  burnt, 
sunk,  or  destroyed  ;  the  only  remaining  vessels  belonging 
to  the  Turks  and  Egyptians  were  twenty-five  of  the 
smallest  transports,  which  were  spared  by  order  of  Ad- 
miral Codrington.  It  was  estimated  that  the  loss  in  men 
on  the  Turkish  and  Egyptian  vessels  was  fully  seven 
thousand. 

On  the  side  of  the  allies,  no  vessels  were  destroyed, 
but  the  Asia,  Albion,  and  Genoa  of  the  English  fleet 
were  so  much  injured,  that  Admiral  Codrington  sent  them 
to  Malta  for  repairs  which  would  enable  them  to  stand 
the  voyage  home  to  England.  Seventy-five  men  were 
killed  and  197  wounded  on  the  British  fleet,  and  the  loss 
of  the  French  was  43  killed  and  1 17  wounded.  The  Rus- 
sian loss  was  not  reported,  and  consequently  was  not  sup- 
posed to  be  great.  On  the  Asia  alone  there  were  16 
killed  and  26  wounded,  one  of  the  former  being  the  son  of 
the  Admiral.  Captains  Bathurst  of  the  Gerioa  and 
Bell  of  the  Asia  were  among  the  killed,  and  also  Lieu- 
tenant Fitz-Roy,  who  was  shot  in  the  pinnace  before  the 
opening  of  the  battle.  The  Asia  had  125  round  shot 
in  her  hull,  18  in  her  foremast,  8  in  the  bowsprit,  and  25 


BA  TTLE   OF  NA  VARINO.  45 

in  the  mainmast.  As  before  stated,  her  mizzen-mast  was 
carried  away.  The  fleet  remained  at  Navarino  until  the 
25th.  As  soon  as  the  battle  was  over,  the  correspondence 
between  the  admirals  was  renewed,  and  it  was  agreed 
that  there  should  be  no  further  hostilities ;  indeed,  there 
could  hardly  be  any,  as  the  Turkish  fleet  had  been  placed 
among  the  things  of  the  past. 

Ibrahim  Pasha  was  absent  on  an  excursion  to  Ryogos 
at  the  time  of  the  battle,  but  he  returned  on  the  21st, 
early  enough  to  see  the  smoking  ruins  of  his  fleet.  He 
had  the  good  sense  to  see  that  the  war  was  practically 
over,  and  that  Turkey  must  cease  to  hope  for  the  subju- 
gation of  Greece.  In  case  it  should  set  about  the  equip- 
ment of  another  fleet,  the  allied  powers  would  follow  their 
example,  and  bring  a  larger  fleet,  together  with  an  army, 
that  would  make  an  end  of  the  Ottoman  empire  with  no 
great  loss  of  time.  He  immediately  applied  himself  to 
plans  for  the  evacuation  of  Greece.  By  means  of  the 
transports  which  had  been  spared  by  Admiral  Codrington 
he  sent  away  his  harem  and  five  thousand  sick  and  wound- 
ed soldiers,  who  arrived  early  in  Alexandria  after  a  speedy 
voyage. 

It  was  feared  that  when  the  news  of  the  event  at  Nava- 
rino reached  Constantinople,  the  lives  of  all  Europeans  in 
that  city,  including  the  foreign  ambassadors,  would  be  in 
great  danger,  but  happily  there  was  no  violence  on  the 
part  of  the  Turks.  The  ambassadors  pressed  for  an  an- 
swer to  their  note  of  August  i6th,  and  at  length  the  Sul- 
tan replied  :  "  My  positive,  absolute,  definitive,  unchange- 
able, eternal  answer  is,  that  the  Sublime  Porte  does  not 
accept  any  proposition  regarding  the  Greeks,  and  will  per- 
sist in  its  own  will  regarding  them  even  to  the  last  day  of 
judgment."  The  Porte  even  demanded  compensation  for 
the  destruction  of  the  fleet,  and  satisfaction  for  the  insult, 
and  that  the  allies  should  abstain  from  all  interference  in 
the  affairs  of  Greece.    The  reply  of  the  ambassadors  was  to 


4.6  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

the  effect  that  the  treaty  of  July  obliged  them  to  defend 
Greece,  and  that  the  Turks  had  no  claim  whatever  for 
reparation  for  the  affair  of  Navarino.  The  ambassadors 
left  Constantinople  on  the  8th  December,  and  soon  after- 
wards Count  Capo  DTstria,  who  had  been  elected  Presi- 
dent of  Greece,  took  his  seat,  and  issued  a  proclamation, 
declaring  that  the  Ottoman  rule  over  the  country  was  at 
an  end  after  three  centuries  of  oppression. 

Thus  was  the  independence  of  Greece  established. 
There  was  little  fighting  after  the  events  of  Navarino, 
and  early  in  1828  Admiral  Codrington  and  Ibrahim  Pasha 
held  a  convention  and  agreed  upon  measures  for  evacuat- 
ing the  land  of  the  Hellenes.  During  the  summer  and 
autumn  Patras,  Navarino,  and  Modon  were  successively 
surrendered  to  the  French,  and  the  Morea  was  evacuated 
by  the  Turks.  Missolonghi  was  surrendered  to  Greece 
early  in  1829,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Adrianople  in  Septem- 
ber of  the  same  year  the  Porte  acknowledged  the  inde- 
pendence of  Greece,  which  was  henceforth  to  be  one  in 
the  family  of  nations. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SIEGE    OF   SILISTRIA — 1 829. 

The  part  taken  by  Russia  in  the  destruction  of  the 
Turkish  fleet  at  Navarino  was  by  no  means  disinterested. 
Russia  was  then  at  war  with  Persia,  in  which  the  latter 
was  defeated  and  obliged  to  ask  for  terms  of  peace. 
By  this  war  and  another  which  terminated  in  181 3,  Persia 
lost  the  provinces  of  Georgia,  Mingrelia,  Erivan,  Nakhitch- 
even,  and  the  greater  part  of  Talish,  the  Russian  frontier 
being  advanced  to  Mount  Ararat  and  the  left  bank  of  the 
Aras  River.  The  treaty  which  closed  the  second  war  was 
signed  February  22,  1828.  Russia  pressed  the  conclusion 
of  the  treaty  with  great  earnestness,  as  she  was  then 
involved  with  Turkey  in  such  a  manner  that  a  war  on 
a  large  scale  was  in  the  immediate  future.  In  fact,  hostili- 
ties had  almost  commenced  between  the  Russian  and 
Ottoman  powers  before  the  terms  of  peace  between 
Persia  and  Russia  had  been  arranged. 

Since  the  beginning  of  1826,  Russia  had  been  strength- 
ening her  armies  on  the  Turkish  frontiers  and  evidently 
making  preparations  for  important  military  movements. 
Preliminary  to  an  invasion  of  Turkish  territory',  Russia 
presented  several  demands,  which  related  chiefly  to  the 
Danubian  principalities  and  their  mode  of  government, 
together  with  the  responsibilities  of  the  Porte  for  the 
piracies  on  the  Barbary  coast,  in  which  Russia,  in  common 
with  other  Christian  nations,  had  suflercd  considerably. 
Turkey   was  then  engaged  with  the   suppression   of  the 

47 


48  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

Greek  rebellion  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Janizaries  in 
Constantinople  ;  she  was  powerless  to  resist  the  Russian 
demands,  and  to  the  surprise  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas 
and  his  entourage  she  acceded  to  the  entire  list,  in  a  treaty 
or  convention  which  has  since  been  known  in  history 
as  the  Convention  of  Ackerman.  The  plenipotentiaries 
signed  it  on  the  last  day  that  had  been  allowed  by 
Nicholas  ;  some  delay  occurred  in  the  ratification  by  the 
Sultan,  but  it  was  finally  ratified  and  became  a  binding 
agreement  between  the  two  empires. 

Subsequent  events  demonstrated  that  Turkey  had  no 
intention  of  holding  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  and 
Russia  wisely  continued  to  augment  her  forces  on  the 
frontier.  Not  only  did  the  course  of  events  demonstrate 
the  absence  of  good  faith  on  the  part  of  the  Sultan,  but 
his  determination  to  break  the  treaty  when  the  proper 
moment  arrived  ;  further  proof  is  found  in  an  official 
circular,  dated  December  20,  1827.'  The  signing  of 
treaties  without  the  intention  of  keeping  them  is  by 
no  means  rare  among  nations,  but  it  is  almost  without 
precedent  in  the  annals  of  diplomacy  that  a  reputable 
government  will  openly  confess  in  a  public  document, 
as  did  Turkey  on  this  occasion,  that  she  had  signed  a 
treaty  solely  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  time,  and  without 
intending  to  carry  out  its  terms. 

Numerous  manifestoes  abounding  in  accusations  of  bad 
conduct  were  issued  by  Russia  and  Turkey  during  1827 
and  early  in  1828.  The  Porte  accused  Russia  of  secretly 
fomenting  the  insurrection  in  Greece,  of  openly  joining  in 
the  destruction  of  the  Turkish  fleet  at  Navarino,  with 
violations  of    all   the   treaties   she  had   ever  signed  with 

'  "  Les  demandes  faites  par  les  Russes,  I'an  passe  a  Ackerman,  au  sujet 
des  indemnites,  et  surtout  a  I'egard  des  Serviens,  ne  furent  aucunement  sus- 
ceptible d'etre  admises  ;  ne'anmoins,  les  circonstances  etant  pressantes,  on  y 
acquies.;a  bon  gre  mal  gre,  et  par  necessite,  afin  de  saisir  I'occasion  de  con- 
clure  un  traite  pour  le  salut  de  la  nation  Mahometane. " 


SIEGE    OF  SILI STRIA.  49 

Turkey,  including  those  of  Bucharest  and  Ackerman,  and 
further  accused  it  of  giving  aid  to  all  malcontents  through- 
out the  Ottoman  dominions.  Russia  accused  the  Porte  of 
fomenting  insurrections  in  the  Caucasus  and  urging  the 
mountaineers  of  that  region  to  embrace  the  religion  of 
Mohammed,  of  the  violation  of  all  the  treaties  it  had 
signed  with  Russia,  and  notably  with  violating  the  treaty 
of  Ackerman,  and  furthermore  alleged  that  on  several 
occasions  the  Porte  had  summarily  closed  the  Bosphorus 
to  Russian  ships,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  commerce  of 
the  southern  provinces  of  the  empire.  The  balance  of 
grievances  w^as  decidedly  in  favor  of  Russia,  but  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  complaints  of  Turkey  had  good 
foundation  in  fact. 

Turkey  had  increased  the  garrison  of  her  fortresses  on 
and  near  the  Danube  at  the  same  time  that  Russia  had 
massed  her  armies  on  the  frontier.  General  Diebitsch 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army  on  the 
Danube,  while  General  Paskievitch  conducted  the  opera- 
tions against  Asiatic  Turkey.  At  the  beginning  of  April, 
the  Russian  army  on  the  Danube  mustered  on  paper 
something  more  than  108,000  men;  it  never  contained 
more  than  100,000  effectives,  and  did  not  at  any  time 
bring  more  than  80,000  men  into  the  field.  About  50,000 
troops  were  added  to  this  number  during  the  summer  and 
later  in  the  year  another  50,000  was  sent  to  join  the  main 
body. 

The  passage  of  the  Pruth,  then  the  boundary  between 
the  empires,  was  made  on  the  7th  of  May.  The  Turks 
had  only  some  cavalry  videttes  to  watch  the  movements, 
and  these  retired,  in  accordance  with  their  orders,  as  soon 
as  the  Russian  advance  began.  In  a  few  weeks  the 
Russians  had  possession  of  Jassy,  Bucharest,  and  Galatz, 
and  were  in  position  in  front  of  Brailov  and  Widin  ;  in  fact 
the  entire  left  bank  of  the  Danube  was  in  their  control." 

'  Sec  map  accomi>anying  Chajitcr  III. 


5Q  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

On  the  2ist  of  July  General  Roth,  commanding  the 
sixth  corps,  arrived  before  the  Danubian  fortress  of  Silistria 
and  immediately  invested  it.  Once  before  (in  i8io)  it 
had  been  entirely  demolished,  but  had  been  restored  by 
the  Turks.  The  town  of  Silistria  is  built  in  the  form  of  a 
half  circle,  the  diameter  two  thousand  yards  long,  being 
turned  to  face  the  Danube.  A  fortification  with  ten 
fronts,  each  five  hundred  and  fifty  yards  in  length  sur- 
rounds it.  There  are  only  a  few  fragments  of  permanent 
outworks,  except  two  narrow  redans  looking  towards  the 
river.  The  glacis  was  built  from  two  to  four  feet  in 
height,  and  the  ditch  was  not  more  than  eight  to  ten 
feet  deep.  Rising  above  the  interior  slope  of  the  ditch 
was  a  scarp  twenty  feet  broad  and  eight  feet  high,  the 
lower  side  of  which  was  defended  by  palisades.  The  ex- 
terior slope  of  the  bastions  was  planted  with  wattles  and 
was  very  steep  ;  the  slopes  of  the  curtain  were  banked 
with  sods  of  earth.  On  the  bastions  were  placed  ten  guns, 
four  on  each  front,  leaving  only  one  on  each  flank  ;  and 
the  lines  of  the  ditch,  which  were  very  short,  were  poorly 
defended.  There  were  four  gates,  two  opening  on  the 
land  and  two  on  the  river.  There  existed  no  way  of  fill- 
ing the  ditch  with  water,  as  its  bed  was  higher  than  the 
level  of  the  Danube,  and  there  was  no  water  running  into 
it.  Around  the  front  facing  the  land,  a  lunette  about 
nine  feet  deep,  but  quite  dry,  had  been  dug  in  the  ditch 
as  a  safeguard  against  Russian  mines.  General  Roth 
found  himself  besieging  Silistria  with  an  insufificient  force 
and  almost  no  artillery;  only  one  battering  train  having 
been  provided  for  carrying  on  a  campaign  in  which  four 
sieges  had  to  be  undertaken.  The  Turks  were  defeated 
in  several  sharp  fights  in  which  they  engaged  the  Russians 
when  the  latter  were  approaching  Silistria.  General 
Roth's  first  position  was  strictly  defensive,  his  soldiers 
being  posted  on  the  high  ground  in  front  of  the  fortress 
and  beyond  the  range  of  its  guns. 


51 


52  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

At  a  distance  of  two  thousand  yards  from  the  fort  the 
Russians  began  their  trenches.  On  the  right  the  hne 
reached  to  the  Danube,  but  the  left  could  not  be  brought 
to  the  river,  being  still  held  by  the  Turks.  For  four 
weeks  the  hostile  armies  retained  this  position  ;  except- 
ing a  few  sallies  of  no  consequence  there  was  no  break  in 
their  relations.  At  midnight  of  August  28th  the  Russians 
made  an  assault  upon  the  Turkish  forces  encamped  on 
the  two  heights  nearest  them  (A  and  B),  and  drove  them 
away.  The  Turks  lost  about  five  hundred  men.  On 
August  loth  a  fleet  of  thirty-six  Russian  ships  appeared 
before  Silistria,  but  without  engaging  the  fortress.  The 
besiegers  were  considerably  reduced  in  numbers  by  the 
withdrawal  of  two  divisions,  who  were  ordered  to  Shumla 
on  the  15th  of  September.  The  troops  suffered  from 
disease,  and  besides  they  were  poorly  fed.  There  was 
no  ammunition,  and  the  one  hundred  and  twenty  guns 
which  the  Russians  had  were  useless.  Winter  was  near, 
and  the  siege  was  raised  on  the  loth  of  November,  after  a 
desultory  cannonade  lasting  forty-eight  hours.  Part  of 
the  besieging  force  crossed  the  river  with  great  difficulty, 
and  the  rest  retreated  through  a  devastated  territory,  the 
Turks  following  in  pursuit.  Thus  ended  the  so-called 
siege  of  Silistria  in  1828.  It  was  poorly  planned  in  every 
way,  feebly  carried  on,  and  was  in  every  way  a  failure. 

OPERATIONS    AGAINST    SILISTRIA    IN     1829. 

The  campaign  was  opened  by  General  Diebitsch,  who 
laid  siege  to  the  fortress,  which  he  deemed  it  necessary  to 
take,  because  it  had  a  large  garrison  distant  but  a  march 
of  two  days  and  directly  flanking  the  army  in  the  Balkan 
Mountains.  As  the  shortest  route  (by  Rassova)  was  im- 
practicable by  reason  of  floods,  the  rugged  and  circuitous 
road  by  Kusgan  was  followed,  and  the  army  arrived 
before  Silistria  on  the  17th  of  May.  The  Russians  had 
learned  at  Brailov,  during  the  preceding  year,  what  was 


SIEGE    OE   SILI STRIA.  53 

meant  by  Turkish  resistance  behind  walls,  and  no  attack 
by  assault  was  attempted.  The  ditch  being  only  thirty 
feet  wide  by  twelve  feet  deep,  it  was  thought  possible  to 
throw  the  counterscarp  upon  the  main  wall  of  the  fortress 
by  means  of  two  or  three  mines  under  the  front  of  the 
outer  earthworks,  and  by  entirely  covering  the  revetement 
to  secure  a  practicable  ascent.  It  was  evident  that  an 
attack  could  be  made  more  easily  on  the  southern  front 
(bastions  five  and  six)  than  elsewhere.  It  could  be  raked 
from  D,  and  the  attack  could  be  maintained  by  batteries 
rising  in  terraces  on  the  slope  of  B.  This  side  was 
entirely  without  outworks.  It  was  decided  in  council  at 
head-quarters  to  make  the  attack  on  the  east  side  in  order 
to  have  the  assistance  of  the  fleet.  Bastions  two  and 
three  were,  therefore,  the  scenes  of  the  real  attack, 
which  was  changed  later  in  the  siege  to  bastions  five  and 
six,  commencing  with  a  feint.  The  Russians'  guns  num- 
bered ninety-six  ;  sixty-five  of  their  own,  the  remaining 
thirty-one  having  been  taken  at  Brailov. 

At  nine  in  the  morning  of  the  17th  of  May,  an  advance 
was  made  upon  the  fortress  from  Chcrnavoda  by  General 
Diebitsch,  commanding  a  part  of  the  second  and  third 
corps,  divided  into  three  columns.  The  Turks  were  in 
possession  of  the  works  made  the  previous  year  by  the 
Russians,  and  for  some  unaccountable  reason  undestroyed 
after  the  raising  of  the  siege.  They  made  a  determined 
opposition  to  the  Russian  advance,  but  were  driven  back 
and  the  trenches  fell  into  the  Russian  hands.  The  thirty- 
one  guns  captured  were  placed  by  the  Russians  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river,  opposite  the  fortress,  at  a  distance  of 
one  thousand  yards.  The  remainder  were  in  readiness  to 
be  shipped  across  the  river.  The  9th  division  of  infantry, 
two  regiments  of  horse  and  three  field  batteries  were  in 
position  on  the  right  wing.  The  centre  was  held  by  the 
1st  brigade  of  the  7th  division  of  infantry  with  a  single 
field  battery:  stationed  on  the  left  were  three  regiments 


54  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

of  horse,  two  brigades  of  the  6th  division,  and  three  field 
batteries.  A  battahon  of  chasseurs  guarded  the  head- 
quarters, which  was  behind  the  right  wing  ;  the  besieging 
force  was  covered  by  the  Cossacks.  On  the  19th  and 
20th  of  May  several  sallies  were  attempted.  The  bat- 
teries on  the  left  were  placed  in  position  on  the  23d  and 
26th  of  May  at  a  distance  of  six  hundred  yards.  A  feint 
enabled  the  Russians  to  cut  a  new  trench  from  one  to 
five,  this  being  the  second  parallel  trench.  The  positions 
already  secured,  together  with  the  embankments  and 
waterways,  were  utilized,  so  that  from  the  beginning  the 
works  were  protected  and  could  be  finished  without  loss. 
The  parallels  were  extended  on  the  right  to  the  road 
to  Bazardjik,  and  a  communication  was  made  between 
them. 

On  the  left  the  attack  was  greatly  assisted  during  the 
night  of  June  3d  by  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  Turks. 
The  Russians  proposed  to  use  a  watercourse  as  a  means 
of  communication  with  a  half  parallel,  which  they  ex- 
pected to  establish  two  hundred  yards  in  front  of  the 
second  parallel.  But  when  the  covering  force  took  posi- 
tion, it  was  ascertained  that  the  Turks  had  no  posts  of 
outlook  in  front  of  their  positions,  and  that  the  working 
party  could  move  forward  three  hundred  and  twenty-four 
paces,  where  a  trench,  only  two  hundred  and  fifty  yards 
away  from  the  counterscarp,  and  on  a  line  with  it, 
presented  an  admirable  beginning  for  the  third  parallel. 
Posts  were  planted  below  the  Turkish  lodgments,  and 
work  was  immediately  commenced.  The  garrison  was 
roused  by  the  noise  of  the  besiegers,  and  opened  a  sharp 
fire  at  once,  but  it  did  little  damage  on  account  of  the 
darkness.  It  was  a  bold  and  successful  attempt,  and  the 
third  parallel,  FF,  was  brought  to  the  right  of  the  water- 
way, to  the  graveyard,  and  completed  in  the  same 
night.  A  sortie  on  an  extended  scale  was  confidently  ex- 
pected on  the  night   of  the  4th,   and    precautions   were 


SIEGE   OF  SI  LI  STRIA.  55 

taken  against  it.  The  Turks  made  a  sally  at  nightfall. 
They  came  out  in  strong  force  and  encountered  the  17th 
chasseurs  hand-to-hand,  but  were  driven  back  at  the  point 
of  the  bayonet  by  the  Russians.  Work  on  the  parallel 
could  not  be  kept  up  that  night,  but  a  sap  with  traverses 
was  started. 

The  state  of  affairs  in  the  Balkans  made  it  necessary  to 
withdraw  some  of  the  besieging  force.  On  the  5th  of 
June  General  Dicbitsch  quitted  Silistria  wMth  the  second 
corps  d'armee,  leaving  General  Krassowski  with  twenty 
battalions  of  infantry,  a  few  squadrons  of  cavalry,  and 
two  battalions  of  sappers,  to  carry  on  the  work  of  the 
siege.  The  besieging  army  did  not  now  number  more 
than  ten  thousand  or  twelve  thousand  men  ;  the  besieged 
were  doubtless  in  greater  force.  The  Russians  could  hope 
to  win  only  by  concealing  the  scarcity  of  their  numbers, 
and  by  pushing  the  work  with  the  utmost  speed,  in  order 
to  keep  the  Turks  within  the  fortress,  and  to  prevent  any 
new  sallies. 

The  rain  poured  down  in  torrents  for  twenty-four  hours, 
filling  the  ditches  until  it  became  necessary  to  dig  wells 
to  carry  away  the  water,  and  altogether  impeding  the 
siege  operations  until  the  9th.  The  Russians,  from  their 
positions  in  the  terraces  on  the  hills,  raked,  with  a  de- 
structive fire,  bastions  five  and  six.  The  Rasgrad  and 
Shumla  gates  were  totally  demolished.  A  heavy  discharge 
of  canister  was  kept  up  by  the  Turks  from  new  embrasures 
which  they  uncovered.  It  was  said  by  deserters  that 
countermines  had  been  sunk  to  oppose  the  attack  on 
bastions  five  and  six,  and  that  these  mines  were  charged 
and  in  readiness  to  be  fired.  Thinking  still  that  their 
numbers  were  not  sufficiently  strong,  the  Russians  con- 
tinued their  work  on  the  covered  sap,  moving  forward 
very  slowly.  News  having  been  received  in  the  evening 
of  the  13th  of  a  Russian  victory  at  Kouleftscha,  they  gen- 
erously allowed  it  to  reach  the  Turks.     A  strong  fire  and 


56  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

a  discharge  of  musketry  were  immediately  begun  by  the 
besiegers  amid  loud  cheers ;  and  the  Turks,  believing  a 
general  attack  would  be  made,  manned  their  walls  at  once. 

On  the  following  day  the  commander  of  the  fortress, 
Mohammed  Pasha,  was  ordered  by  General  Krassowski  to 
surrender.  He  refused  to  do  so,  stating  that  "  the  law 
enjoined  him  to  make  a  defence  to  the  last."  On  the 
i6th,  the  first  sap  had  been  brought  to  the  crest  of  the 
glacis  ;  the  Russians  crowned  the  works,  and  the  engineers 
ordered  shafts  to  be  sunk  for  four  double  mines.  It  had 
been  determined  to  destroy  the  counterscarp  fronting 
them  at  that  spot,  without  waiting  for  the  other  saps 
against  bastion  six  to  be  finished.  As  the  Russians  ap- 
proached the  Turkish  positions,  the  defenders  retired 
slowly.  The  last  saps  reached  the  glacis  on  the  2oth  of 
June.  Mines  were  laid  and  shafts  sunk  at  a  distance  of 
thirteen  feet  from  the  revetement  of  the  wall,  and  eight 
icet  below  the  bed  of  the  trench.  The  mines  were  charged 
with  one  ton  of  powder  for  every  one  hundred  and  forty 
cubic  feet  of  earth.  When  fired,  they  tore  up  the  Turkish 
countermines  and  filled  the  ditch.  The  earth  thrown  up 
by  the  explosion  of  the  mines  nearly  reached  the  edge  of 
the  revetement,  and  gave  two  easy  routes  for  storming. 

But  the  Russians  were  not  ready  for  an  assault,  owing 
to  their  small  numbers;  and  after  the  explosion  of  the 
mines  they  made  no  attempt  to  profit  by  the  confusion 
of  the  Turks.  A  sharp  fusillade  was  maintained  on  both 
sides.  When  the  Turks  saw  the  result  of  the  explosion, 
they  directed  their  mines  as  a  counter  against  the  piles  of 
earth  thrown  up.  The  Russians  fired  two  other  mines, 
the  effect  and  the  result  being  the  same  as  before.  At 
one  time  the  two  parties  of  miners  met  in  the  works  below 
the  ground,  and  entered  into  a  hand-to-hand  struggle, 
which  ended  by  the  Turks  retreating  and  stopping  up  the 
gallery. 

One  of  the   Turkish  countermines,  by  some  accident, 


SIEGE   OE  SI  LI  STRIA.  57 

exploded  almost  simultaneously  with  the  mine  of  the 
Russians;  the  whole  front  of  bastion  number  four  was 
thus  completely  opened,  and  the  besiegers  were  conse- 
quently able  to  occupy  the  bastion.  After  making  an 
inefTectual  attempt  to  recover  it,  the  Turks  continued  to 
defend  themselves  in  the  fort  by  means  of  grenades, 
stones,  mines  under  the  cunette,  and  fire-pots,  in  addition 
to  an  almost  continuous  fire  of  musketry.  The  fire-pots 
were  in  frequent  use  during  the  siege,  and  on  several  oc- 
casions they  were  efTectual  in  driving  the  Russians  out  of 
the  ditch.  They  consisted  of  earthen  pots  with  gun- 
powder in  the  bottom  and  pitch  above.  The  pitch  was 
ignited,  and  then  the  pots  were  thrown  down  ;  they  soon 
exploded  with  such  formidable  effect  that  the  enemy  was 
put  to  flight. 

On  the  25th  of  June  the  mine  below  the  right  angle  of 
bastion  five  was  commenced,  and  in  a  short  time  that  and 
another  mine  were  exploded.  The  Russian  chasseurs 
now  moved  in  without  resistance,  and  General  Berg  on 
his  own  account  assaulted  and  carried  the  two  forts  close 
by  which  the  besieged  had  almost  abandoned.  By  this 
time  the  besiegers  had  made  five  large  openings,  practi- 
cable for  assault,  in  the  main  wall  of  the  fortress.  When 
the  Russians  were  ready  to  fire  another  mine  farther 
down  the  line,  Mohammed  Pasha  gave  up  and  asked  for 
the  conditions  of  capitulation.  Some  time  was  lost  over 
the  terms  of  surrender,  probably  intentionally  on  the 
Turkish  side,  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  up  more  earth- 
works, but  a  peremptory  demand  to  either  surrender  or 
refuse  brought  the  Pasha  to  terms,  and  he  came  to  the 
Russian  camp  a  prisoner  of  war.  The  fortress  was  sur- 
rendered, 8,000  men  laid  down  arms,  and  in  the  town 
were  found  8,000  people,  besides  1,500  sick  and  wounded, 
showing  that  the  original  strength  of  the  garrison  was  not 
far  from  16,000  men.  Two  hundred  and  thirty  guns  on 
the  walls  and  thirty-one  on  board  the  gun-boats,  together 


58  DECISIVE   BATTIES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

with  forty  standards,  fell  a  prize  to  the  victorious  Rus- 
sians. 

During  the  siege  the  Turks  displayed  great  bravery  and 
determination,  but  they  also  displayed  great  ignorance  of 
the  art  of  war.  The  siege  lasted  forty-four  days  from  the 
first  investment,  thirty-five  from  the  time  the  first  parallel 
was  opened,  twenty-five  after  the  third  parallel,  and  nine 
days  after  the  mines  had  made  a  perfectly  practicable  breach 
under  bastion  number  five.  Twenty-nine  thousand  five 
hundred  and  seventy-six  shots  were  fired  into  the  fort. 
The  chief  causes  of  capitulation  seem  to  have  been  lack 
of  harmony  between  the  commanders  and  lack  of  provi- 
sions. It  is  greatly  to  the  credit  of  the  Russians  to  have 
forced  an  enemy  outnumbering  them  two  to  one,  and  be- 
hind walls,  to  surrender,  especially  with  their  insufficient 
equipment.  But  the  poor  condition  of  the  fort,  the  in- 
competency and  quarrels  of  the  commanders,  and  the 
miserable  handling  of  the  garrison  assisted  them  material- 
ly. The  most  remarkable  fact  was  this  :  that  but  little 
use  was  made  of  artillery,  the  reduction  having  been  made 
principally  by  sapping  and  mining.  Silistria  was  taken  at  a 
cost  to  the  Russians  of  three  thousand  men  and  seven 
weeks'  time,  a  saving  of  men,  certainly,  since  the  loss  in 
one  day's  assault  on  the  fortress  of  Brailov  was  greatly  in 
excess  of  this  number. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  withdrawal  of  a  portion 
of  the  investing  army  during  the  siege,  and  its  employment 
elsewhere.  The  main  body  of  the  Turkish  army  was  at 
Shumla  under  the  command  of  Redschid  Pasha,  grand 
vizier ;  it  numbered  about  forty  thousand  men,  mostly 
irregular  troops,  and  by  no  means  able  to  cope  with  a 
corresponding  force  of  Russians.  At  Rustchuk  on  the 
Danube  was  Hussein  Pasha,  with  eight  or  ten  thousand 
men,  watching  the  course  of  events,  and  waiting  to  move 
at  the  orders  of  the  grand  vizier.  Varna  to  the  east  of 
Shumla  was  held   by  the  Russians,  and  so  was  Pravadi, 


SIEGE   OF  SI  LI  STRIA.  $g 

where  the  Muscovites  had  maintained  themselves  without 
interference  during  the  winter. 

Soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  siege  the  grand  vizier 
conceived  a  grand  plan,  which  if  successful  would  have 
ended  the  campaign  and  driven  the  Russians  to  the  north 
of  the  Danube.  His  idea  was  to  overwhelm  the  Russians 
in  detail,  first  by  recapturing  Pravadi  with  its  garrison, 
and  then  moving  on  the  force  investing  Silistria,  together 
with  the  covering  army,  which  was  commanded  by  General 
Diebitsch  in  person.  With  this  object  in  view  the  grand 
vizier  on  the  28th  of  May  marched  out  of  Shumla  at  the 
head  of  thirty-six  thousand  men,  leaving  only  a  feeble 
garrison  to  hold  the  place.  General  Roth,  who  com- 
manded the  Russians  at  and  near  Pravadi,  strengthened 
the  garrison  with  two  battalions,  and  then  retired  about 
twenty  miles  to  the  northward  with  ten  thousand  men. 
At  the  same  time  he  despatched  an  ofificer  with  news  of 
the  movement  of  the  Turks,  telling  him  to  ride  as  for  life 
or  death.  The  ofifiicer  covered  the  distance  of  eighty 
miles  in  twelve  hours  without  changing  his  horse.  The 
Turks  arrived  in  front  of  Pravadi  on  the  ist  of  June,  and 
sat  down  leisurely  with  the  intention  of  taking  the  place 
in  their  own  convenient  time.  Pravadi  stands  in  a  narrow 
valley  at  the  foot  of  the  Balkans,  and  is  a  place  of  great 
natural  strength,  so  that  an  assault  was  quite  inadvisable. 

Immediately  on  hearing  of  the  Turkish  movements 
General  Diebitsch  determined  to  move  by  forced  marches 
with  the  covering  army  near  Silistria,  and  also  with  a  part 
of  the  besieging  force,  and  check  the  plans  of  the  grand 
vizier,  which  he  learned  through  an  intercepted  letter  to 
Hussein  Pasha.  By  the  5th  of  June,  he  was  in  motion 
with  twenty  thousand  men,  leaving  General  Krassowski  to 
continue  the  siege  of  Silistria  and  prevent  reinforcements 
reaching  the  garrison.  This  explains  the  weakness  of  the 
besiegers  during  their  operations  against  the  fortress. 
Diebitsch's  plan  was  to  move  against  the  grand  vizier's 


6o  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

line  of  communication  with  Shumla,  and  not  upon  the 
Turkish  position  in  front  of  Pravadi.  By  so  doing  he 
would  compel  the  Turks  to  abandon  Shumla  to  its  fee- 
ble garrison,  in  which  event  it  would  be  taken  without 
serious  opposition,  or  else  fight  their  way  back  to  it 
through  the  Russian  army  under  circumstances  greatly 
to  their  disadvantage.  Though  brave  enough  behind 
defences,  the  Turkish  troops  were  too  recently  organ- 
ized to  enable  them  to  be  satisfactorily  handled  in  the 
open  field,  and  especially  under  fire.  The  Russian  artil- 
lery was  moved  by  horses,  while  all  the  Turkish  cannon 
were  transported  by  oxen.  Diebitsch  rightly  calculated 
that  the  Turkish  guns,  though  greatly  superior  to  the 
Russians  in  numbers,  would  be  of  slight  efficiency  in 
the  field,  when  their  motive  power  was  by  means  of  oxen 
only. 

Count  Pahlen,  with  the  advance  of  the  Russian  arm\-, 
established  himself  on  the  9th  of  June  at  a  point  between 
Shumla  and  Pravadi,  and  was  closely  followed  by  the 
rest  of  General  Diebitsch's  force.  On  the  loth.  General 
Ross,  who  had  skilfully  concealed  the  Russian  advance 
by  a  thin  curtain  of  Cossack  videttes,  made  a  forced 
march  and  joined  Diebitsch,  thus  making  the  available 
force  under  the  latter  something  more  than  thirty  thou- 
sand men  with  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  guns.  The 
grand  vizier  first  learned  that  he  was  cut  off  from  Shumla 
by  some  prisoners  captured  in  a  skirmish  on  the  evening 
of  the  loth.  Not  aware  that  the  whole  Russian  force  was 
in  front  of  him,  he  started  to  retire  to  Shumla  in  full  con- 
fidence that  he  would  be  able  to  reach  it. 

The  first  onset  between  the  opposing  forces  was  an 
affair  of  cavalry  and  artillery,  in  which  the  Russians  were 
the  sufferers.  The  Turks  sent  three  thousand  horsemen, 
the  flower  of  their  cavalry,  which  completely  routed  the 
Russian  battalion  opposing  them  and  captured  five  guns  ; 
they  next  assailed  two  battalions  of  infantry,  which  they 


SIEGE   OF  SILI STRIA.  6 1 

cut  down,  and  captured  five  more  guns.  The  Russians  re- 
treated to  their  main  body,  the  Turks  pursuing,  but  halt- 
ing judiciously  and  retiring  when  they  found  they  were 
facing  great  odds.  The  Russian  stand  was  made  at 
Kouleftscha,  where  Diebitsch  immediately  concentrated 
all  his  forces  and  drew  victory  out  of  defeat.  As  the  bat- 
tle continued,  the  superiority  of  the  Russian  artillery  told 
heavily  against  the  Turks,  who  were  thrown  into  disorder, 
and  lost  heavily  in  men  and  guns.  The  grand  vizier  took 
a  circuitous  route  to  Shumla,  where  he  arrived  with 
eighteen  thousand  men  and  twelve  guns ;  he  had  marched 
out  a  few  days  before  with  thirty-six  thousand  men  and 
fifty-nine  guns.  The  Russian  loss  in  the  battle  was  sixty- 
three  officers  and  about  twenty-five  hundred  men  ;  all  the 
artillery  lost  by  them  in  the  early  part  of  the  battle  was 
abandoned  by  the  Turks  later  in  the  day. 

Immediately  after  the  fall  of  Silistria  General  Diebitsch 
conceived  the  daring  plan  of  crossing  the  Balkans,  but  he 
carefully  kept  it  to  himself  until  every  thing  was  ready. 
He  made  great  and  ostentatious  preparations  for  besieg- 
ing Shumla,  and  so  completely  deceived  the  grand  vizier 
that  the  latter  made  no  attempt  at  defending  the  passes 
of  the  mountains.  Diebitsch  formed  a  camp  in  front  of 
Shumla,  and  during  every  day  detachments  of  troops 
were  arriving  hourly  with  banners  flying  and  bands  play- 
ing, while  the  soldiers  already  there  greeted  the  new- 
comers. But  during  the  night  other  detachments,  which 
were  concealed  by  a  chain  of  outposts,  moved  silently  to 
the  left  to  reinforce  the  corps  of  Roth  and  Rudiger, 
which  had  entered  the  valley  of  the  Kamtjik  with  the 
view  of  crossing  the  Balkan  chain  by  the  Aidos  Pass. 
The  ruse  was  so  successful  that  the  Turks  had  only  three 
thousand  men  at  the  foot  of  the  northern  slope  of  the 
ridge,  and  had  done  absolutely  nothing  in  the  way  of 
throwing  up  intrenchmcnts  or  otherwise  preparing  for  a 
defence,  when    Roth  and    Rudiger  were  ready  to  move 


62  DECISIVE  BATTIES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

with  twenty  thousand  men,  carrying  four  days'  rations  in 
their  haversacks  and  ten  days'  additional  rations  in  the 
wagons  which  followed  each  regiment. 

The  march  for  the  passage  of  the  Balkans  began  on  the 
17th  of  July,  and  so  admirably  was  the  movement  con- 
ducted, that  the  Turks  were  taken  completely  by  surprise 
and  offered  scarcely  any  resistance.  Aidos,  on  the  south- 
ern side  of  the  mountains,  was  full  of  military  stores,  which 
were  abandoned  by  the  Turks  as  the  Russians  approached, 
and  other  important  captures  of  the  same  nature  were 
made.  Communication  was  opened  with  the  Russian 
fleet  at  Bourgas  and  other  points  ;  the  Turkish  troops 
seemed  panic-stricken  and  fled  in  dismay  to  the  capital, 
and  altogether  General  Diebitsch  had  things  pretty  much 
to  his  liking.  But  he  was  in  a  critical  position,  as  his 
army  was  much  smaller  than  the  Turks  generally  believed 
it  to  be;  the  Bulgarians  had  spread  the  rumor  that  the 
Russians  were  countless  as  the  leaves  of  the  forest,  and 
the  Turkish  scouts  reported  them  at  least  sixty  thousand 
strong,  when  they  were  really  less  than  half  that  number. 

The  conquering  army  reached  Adrianople  August  20th, 
and  on  the  following  morning  entered  the  city  without 
bloodshed.  Eight  days  later  was  signed  the  Treaty  of 
Adrianople,  by  which  the  former  treaties  of  Ackerman, 
Bucharest,  and  Kainardjii  were  ratified  to  their  fullest 
extent,  together  with  the  conventions  relating  to  Servia. 
The  passage  of  the  Dardanelles  was  declared  open  to 
Russian  merchant  ships,  in  common  with  those  of  other 
nations  ;  Turkey  was  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  ^750,000 
sterling  to  Russian  subjects  who  had  been  despoiled  of 
their  property,  while  the  Russian  government  was  to  re- 
ceive a  war  indemnity  of  ^^"5, 000,000  sterling,  and  the  con- 
quered provinces  were  to  be  held  by  the  Russians  until 
the  indemnity  was  paid.  The  Turkish  provinces  to  the 
north  of  the  Danube  were  to  be  practically  independent 
of  Turkey,  and  the  Porte  engaged  not  to  maintain  any 


SIEGE    OF  SILISTRIA.  63 

fortified  post  or  Mussulman  establishment  witliin  their 
boundaries.  A  small  tribute  was  to  be  paid  to  Turkey  by 
the  principalities,  but  every  Moslem  subject  of  the  Porte 
north  of  the  Danube  was  to  sell  his  property  and  leave 
the  country  within  eighteen  months.  Russia  was  to  have 
the  right  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  the  Danubian  princi- 
palities in  case  of  any  violation  of  the  treaty  on  the  part 
of  Turkey. 

Russia  gained  additional  territory  in  Asia  as  a  return 
for  her  successful  operations  in  that  region.  She  obtained 
the  fortress  and  pashalik  of  Akhaltiskh,  with  a  portion  of 
the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  ;  Southern  Caucasus  and  a  part 
of  Armenia  thus  passed  into  Russian  control,  where  they 
have  ever  since  remained,  and  several  minor  advantages 
were  obtained  by  the  Czar  in  the  Treaty  of  Adrianople 
and  the  conventions  which  followed  it.  An  officer  of 
rank  was  despatched  to  Asia  immediately  after  the  signing 
of  the  treaty ;  in  less  than  a  fortnight  from  the  memorable 
28th  of  August  all  hostilities  were  suspended,  and  shortly 
afterwards  peace  was  declared. 

General  Paskievitch,  who  commanded  the  Russian  army 
in  Asia,  was  rewarded  with  the  baton  of  a  field-marshal. 
A  similar  honor  was  given  to  General  Diebitsch,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  title  "  Zabalkanski  "  (Trans-Balkanian),  in 
commemoration  of  his  daring  march  across  that  hitherto 
impassable  mountain  chain.  A  major-general  at  twenty- 
five,  and  lieutenant-general  at  twenty-eight,  he  was  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  soldiers  whose  names  adorn  the 
military  records  of  Russia.  He  was  only  in  his  forty-fifth 
year  when  he  became  a  field-marshal,  after  the  peace  of 
Adrianople. 


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CHAPTER  V. 

BATTLE  OF  STAOUELI  AND  FALL  OF  ALGIERS— 1 83O. 

In  the  year  454  of  the  Christian  era,  Genseric,  the  ruler 
of  Northern  Africa,  sent  an  expedition  that  ravaged  the 
coast  of  Sicily  and  Italy,  captured  Rome,  which  was  given 
up  to  sack  for  fourteen  days,  and  returned  to  Africa  with 
sixty  thousand  prisoners.  The  fleet  of  Genseric  was  the 
precursor  of  the  pirates  and  corsairs  that  ravaged  the 
Mediterranean  from  that  time  to  the  present  century,  and 
the  prisoners  that  were  brought  from  Rome  M^ere  the  van- 
guard of  that  vast  array  of  foreign  slaves  who  toiled 
under  Algerine  and  other  barbaric  masters  until  the 
French  conquest  of  which  we  are  about  to  speak. 

Under  the  Turkish  rulers  of  Algeria  piracy  became 
a  well-organized  system,  and  was  regarded  as  legitimate 
a  means  of  obtaining  wealth  as  in  our  day  we  regard  the 
manufacture  of  woollen  or  cotton  goods,  or  the  shipment 
of  grain  or  other  products  to  a  profitable  market.  The 
Moslems  considered  it  entirely  proper  to  hold  all  Chris- 
tians in  their  power  as  slaves,  and  they  made  no  distinc- 
tion between  prisoners  of  war,  the  crews  of  captured 
merchant  ships,  or  unhappy  victims  of  their  raids  on  the 
European  coast  and  islands.  Furthermore,  whenever  any 
European  state  attempted  reprisals,  it  was  the  custom  of 
the  Dey  of  Algiers  to  send  to  the  galleys  the  consul  of  that 
country,  together  with  the  crew  of  any  merchant  ship  that 
might  have  ventured  into  his  ports  for  purposes  of  trade. 
On  many  occasions    hundreds  of  these  peaceful  traders 

64 


^  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

were  slaughtered  in  cold  blood,  simply  as  a  matter  of  in- 
timidation to  the  government  to  which  they  owed  alle- 
giance. The  consuls  were  treated  with  great  barbarity; 
they  were  burned  alive  or  blown  from  the  mouths  of  can- 
nons, and  on  one  occasion  on  the  approach  of  a  French  fleet 
the  French  consul  was  thrown  towards  them  from  a  mortar. 
The  various  European  governments  made  frequent  at- 
tempts to  suppress  this  system  of  piracy  and  slavery,  but 
as  they  were  constantly  warring  among  themselves  they 
could  not  fix  upon  united  action.  Each  was  generally 
content  to  see  its  neighbors  preyed  upon  if  it  could  secure 
immunity  for  itself,  and  consequently  the  attempts  to  this 
end  were  in  the  shape  of  tribute,  partly  in  money  and 
very  often  partly  in  cannon,  muskets,  powder,  shells,  and 
other  munitions  of  war.  As  late  as  1771  France  bought 
peace  with  Algiers,  and  one  of  the  conditions  was  that 
she  should  send  over  some  cannon-founders  to  instruct 
the  pirates  in  their  art.  Spain,  Holland,  England, 
Austria,  and  the  United  States  of  America  were  among 
the  tributary  nations  ;  as  late  as  1805,  ^  these  countries 
paid  tribute  to  the  dey  as  a  condition  of  not  being 
molested,  a  condition,  it  is  needless  to  say,  that  was 
speedily  violated. 

In  1 8 16  England  sent  a  fleet  under  Lord  Exmouth 
to  compel  the  liberation  of  British  subjects  that  were  then 
held  in  slavery.  The  dey  refused  to  listen  to  terms,  and 
the  result  was  the  bombardment  of  Algiers,  the  destruc- 
tion of  its  fleet  and  forts,  and  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty 
by  which  Christian  slavery  should  forever  cease  in  the 
dominions  of  the  dey,  all  slaves  then  in  bondage  were  to 
be  liberated  immediately,  all  money  received  for  the  ran- 
som of  slaves  since  the  beginning  of  the  year  was  to 
be  returned,  and  the  British  consul  who  had  been  put  in 
irons  was  to  receive  reparation  and  an  apology.  But  in 
spite  of  the  treaty,  piracy  and  slavery  continued,  and  after 
a  fresh  rupture  with  England  in  1824,  which  was  patched 


cfTeef 


PLAN  OF  THE!  F0RTJFJCATION9 
OF  THE. 

City  of  Algiers 


67 


68  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

up  in  a  manner  disgraceful  to  the  latter,  the  insolence  oi 
the  Algerian  authorities  was  without  limit,  and  they 
regarded  treaties  as  of  no  more  consequence  than  so 
many  sheets  of  waste  paper. 

During  the  Napoleonic  wars,  the  Dey  of  Algiers  sup- 
plied grain  for  the  use  of  the  French  armies  ;  it  was 
bought  by  merchants  of  Marseilles,  and  there  was  a  dis- 
pute about  the  matter  which  was  unsettled  as  late  as 
1829.  Several  instalments  had  been  paid;  the  dey 
demanded  payment  in  full  according  to  his  own  figures, 
while  the  French  government,  believing  the  demand  ex- 
cessive, required  an  investigation.  In  one  of  the  numer- 
ous debates  on  the  subject,  Hussein  Pasha,  the  reigning 
dey,  became  very  angry,  struck  the  consul  with  a  fan, 
and  ordered  him  out  of  the  house.  He  refused  all  repara- 
tion for  the  insult,  even  on  the  formal  demand  of  the 
French  government,  and  consequently  there  was  no  alter- 
native but  war.  It  was  known  that  the  Algerines  had 
replaced  the  fleet  destroyed  by  Lord  Exmouth,  and 
repaired  and  greatly  strengthened  the  fortifications  of  the 
harbor  of  Algiers.  But  their  defences  only  looked 
towards  an  attack  by  water,  and  they  had  quite  neglected 
the  rear  of  the  city,  which  was  commanded  by  heights 
behind  it.  Therefore  the  French  determined  upon  a 
land  attack  as  the  best  mode  of  conquering  the  strong- 
hold of  the  corsairs. 

During  the  whole  of  April,  the  French  government 
pursued  its  preparations  at  Toulon,  Brest,  Havre,  and 
Cherbourg,  and  by  the  beginning  of  May  all  the  fleet  was 
assembled  at  Toulon  and  ready  for  sea.  The  land  forces 
comprised  37,500  men,  3,000  horses,  and  180  pieces  of 
artillery,  mostly  heavy  guns  for  the  reduction  of  Algiers, 
in  case  a  siege  should  be  found  necessary.  The  sea  forces 
included  1 1  ships  of  the  line,  23  frigates,  70  smaller  vessels, 
377  transports,  and  230  boats  for  landing  troops.  General 
Bourn\ont,  Minister  of  War,  commanded  the  expedition, 


BATTLE   OF  STAOUELI  AND  FALL    OF  ALGIERS.      69 

which  appeared  in  front  of  Algiers  on  the  13th  of  June, 
1830.  Though  somewhat  alarmed  at  the  spectacle  of  the 
vast  fleet,  Hussein  Pasha  thought  he  would  be  able  to 
defeat  his  assailants  with  little  difificulty  should  they  ever 
attempt  to  land.  He  had  previously  asked  for  aid  from 
the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  but  that  wily  ruler  had  blankly  re- 
fused. The  beys  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli  had  also  declined 
to  meddle  with  the  affair,  and  he  had  only  his  vassals,  the 
beys  of  Oran,  Constantine,  and  Tittery  to  fall  back  upon. 
They  were  entirely  confident  that  a  descent  on  the  coast 
of  Algiers  was  contemplated  by  the  French,  and  stood 
ready  to  meet  them  in  strong  force. 

Admiral  Duperre,  the  commander  of  the  fleet,  carefully 
examined  the  coast  and  decided  that  the  best  place  for 
landing  was  at  Sidi-Ferruch,  about  sixteen  miles  to  the 
west  of  Algiers,  where  there  is  a  peninsula  enclosed  by 
two  deep  bays.  On  the  14th  the  landing  was  partially 
effected,  rapidly  and  in  excellent  order.  It  was  observed 
that  the  ground  rose  rather  steeply  in  a  series  of  natural 
terraces,  covered  with  brushwood  near  the  shore,  and 
considerably  more  wooded  farther  inland.  The  French 
also  perceived  that  every  one  of  these  terraces  held  a 
swarm  of  Turks  and  Arabs  partially  concealed  in  the 
bushes.  They  were  not  long  in  opening  a  lively  fusillade 
against  the  French,  who  replied  without  attempting  to 
advance.  The  Arabs  mistook  the  deliberation  of  the 
French  for  fear,  and  concluded  that  it  would  be  an  easy 
matter  to  destroy  the  invaders  at  any  desired  moment. 

Hussein's  commander-in-chief  was  his  son-in-law,  the  Aga 
Ibrahim,  who  had  40,000  to  50,000  men  under  his  com- 
mand. Ibrahim  was  a  very  skilful  and  daring  horseman, 
but  not  much  of  a  soldier.  When  the  news  came  that  the 
French  were  landing  at  Sidi-Ferruch,  Ibrahim  marched 
his  army  to  the  heights  overlooking  the  bay,  and  en- 
camped it  on  the  table-land  of  Staoueli,  which  spreads  out 
from  the  crest  of  the  hills.     His  troops  were  mostly  ir- 


70  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

regulars,  having  come  there  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
looting  and  with  Httle  stomach  for  battle.  His  horsemen 
could  not  be  called  cavalry  in  any  close  sense  of  the  word. 
They  were  merely  marks-men  on  horseback.  Their  mode 
of  fighting  was  to  ride  up  at  a  gallop,  discharge  their  guns, 
and  then  wheel  about  and  retire.  Their  numbers  and  the 
fury  of  their  onset,  together  with  their  fine  horsemanship, 
made  them  dangerous  enemies. 

Ibrahim,  assembled  his  men  at  Staoueli,  in  the  belief 
that  the  most  arrant  cowardice  kept  the  French  in  their 
camps,  and  that  it  would  be  an  easy  matter  for  him  to 
make  a  rush  and  drive  the  army,  horse  and  foot,  into  the 
Mediterranean.  He  did  not  observe  the  artillery  that  was 
rapidly  being  landed  by  the  French,  nor  did  he  see  the 
horses  and  ammunition  wagons  to  move  and  supply  the 
guns.  He  was  at  first  inclined  to  make  an  attack  when 
only  a  small  part  of  the  invaders  had  reached  the  shore, 
but  finally  concluded  to  let  the  entire  body  come  to  land, 
so  that  he  would  have  but  a  single  job  of  annihilation. 

For  five  days  the  French  continued  their  work  of  de- 
barkation unmolested  by  the  Algerines  except  by  the 
desultory  attacks  of  horsemen  coming  singly  or  in  small 
groups  to  try  conclusions  with  the  pickets.  A  few  strag- 
glers and  foraging  parties  were  cut  off,  but  on  the  whole 
the  loss  to  the  French  during  the  five  days  of  the  landing 
was  trifling.  On  the  19th  General  Bourmont  was  ready 
for  the  advance,  and  gave  orders  for  breaking  up  the  camp 
and  moving  in  the  direction  of  the  enemy.  There  was 
great  scarcity  of  water  in  the  camp  until  the  i6th,  when  a 
heavy  rain  flooded  the  country  ;  after  this  rain  the  soldiers 
found  plenty  of  water  everywhere  by  digging  a  few  feet 
into  the  sand. 

Ibrahim  had  made  his  camp  on  the  plain  of  Staoueli, 
drawing  up  his  line  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  with  his 
right  resting  on  the  valley  of  the  MadifTa,  a  small  river 
flowing  from   the   Atlas   Mountains,  which   here   fill   the 


BATTLE   OF  STAOUELI  AND   FALL    OF  ALGIERS.      y\ 

southern  horizon,  A  redoubt  was  thrown  up,  and  strong- 
ly mounted,  and  behind  the  numerous  knolls  and  hillocks 
of  the  table-land  many  thousands  of  soldiers  were  lying  in 
wait.  If  Ibrahim  had  remained  where  he  was,  and  calmly 
-awaited  the  attack,  he  would  have  shown  some  under- 
standing of  the  ways  of  warfare,  since  he  must  have  been 
aware  that  his  greatest  strength  always  lay  in  acting  on 
the  defensive.  But  such  was  the  arrogance  of  the  AI- 
gerines  that  his  muddled  brain  did  not  suggest  any  better 
plan  than  to  let  loose  his  hordes  of  horsemen,  ride  down 
the  French  infantry,  and  thus  secure  victory  without  de- 
lay. 

As  the  French  began  their  advance  the  Moslems  came 
to  meet  them.  The  former  had  about  thirty  thousand 
men  under  arms,  while  the  latter  were  thought  to  be 
not  less  than  forty-five  thousand — at  least  that  was  the 
estimate  of  the  conquerors.  Twenty  thousand  Moslems 
came  rushing  over  the  plain  to  attack  General  Berthezene's 
division,  and  fifteen  thousand  more,  led  by  Ahmed,  the 
Bey  of  Constantine,  moved  around  Lovedo's  division  to 
attack  it  in  the  rear,  a  manoeuvre  which  would  have 
placed  the  French  between  two  fires. 

The  plan  was  an  excellent  one,  but  neither  Ibrahim  nor 
Ahmed  had  the  military  genius  to  make  it  successful.  A 
short  fusillade  ensued,  and  a  troop  of  Arabs  dashed  into 
the  French  camp.  A  hand-to-hand  fight  followed,  and 
very  soon  the  ground  was  strewn  with  the  dead  and 
wounded.  There  was  a  time  when  the  2ist  regiment 
of  the  line  seemed  to  be  severely  shaken.  The  soldiers' 
pouches  were  empty,  and  their  ranks  in  too  close  order  to 
make  an  effective  use  of  the  bayonet. 

The  rally  was  sounded.  General  Bourmont  called  up 
the  reserves,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  tide  of  battle  had 
turned.  The  general,  observing  the  eager  onslaught  of 
his  soldiers,  and  also  the  loose  desultory  system  of  the 
Algerian  attack,   now  ordered   the  three  divisions  to  ad- 


72  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

vance  at  the  double-quick  upon  the  plateau  of  Staoueli. 
An  eye-witness  says  :  "  The  soldiers  had  been  waiting  for 
that  order.  Away  now  they  dashed  in  three  different 
routes  to  meet  at  the  enemy's  intrenchment.  At  once 
they  carry  the  redoubt,  cut  down  the  gunners  at  the  bat- 
tery, and  in  their  turn  rush  into  the  enemy's  camps.  The 
furious  onslaught  of  the  soldiers  reels  the  Arabs  over  ,  they 
turn  about  as  if  in  a  whirlpool,  give  way,  and  are  hurried 
out  of  all  their  positions.  For  an  instant  they  try  re- 
sistance, but  too  late  ;  they  take  to  flight  and  run,  never 
halting  till  the  sheltering  walls  of  Algiers  receive  them." 

The  Algerines  had  made  a  fairly  orderly  retreat  until 
the  French  entered  their  camp  and  captured  the  artillery. 
Orientals  have  a  great  respect  for  cannon  ;  its  possession 
is  to  them  a  proof  of  superiority,  and  its  loss  is  almost 
certain  to  cause  a  panic  among  them.  It  was  so  in  the 
present  instance,  and  when  their  guns  were  in  the  hands 
of  the  French,  their  hope  of  victory  was  gone.  And 
furthermore,  the  French  guns,  nearly  one  hundred  in  num- 
ber, had  been  steadily  pouring  grape  and  canister  in  the 
Moslem  ranks  at  short  range  and  steady  aim,  with  a  de- 
structive effect  that  no  irregular  troops  are  able  to  with- 
stand. The  Arab  loss  in  killed  and  wounded  was  about 
three  thousand,  largely  caused  by  the  artillery  fire  of  the 
invaders,  while  the  French  loss  was  less  than  five  hundred. 
In  little  more  than  an  hour  the  battle  was  over,  and  the 
Osmanlis  were  in  full  and  disorderly  retreat. 

General  Bourmont  remained  where  he  was  for  several 
days,  strengthening  his  position  and  clearing  out  an  old 
Roman  road  for  the  transportation  of  his  heavy  artillery 
to  the  rear  of  Algiers.  On  the  day  of  the  battle  the  de- 
barkation of  the  heavy  artillery  had  not  been  completed, 
and  the  work  was  continued  until  every  piece  was  on 
shore.  The  French  occupied  and  strengthened  the  former 
camp  of  the  Osmanlis  at  Staoueli,  and  took  every  precau- 
tion against  surprise.     The  Moslems  recovered  from  their 


BATTLE   OF  STAOUELI  AND   FALL    OF  ALGIERS.       73 

fright,  and  after  a  few  skirmishes,  in  which  their  wonderful 
ability  on  horseback  was  admirably  displayed,  they  made 
an  attack  (June  24th)  on  the  French  lines.  Twenty 
thousand  men,  most  of  them  mounted,  advanced  to  the 
assault  with  loud  shouts  and  riding  close  up  to  the 
French  position.  The  divisions  of  Berthezene  and  Lo- 
vedo  moved  out  to  meet  them  in  the  same  order  as  on 
the  19th,  and  with  the  same  result.  The  artillery  moved 
between  the  columns  of  infantry,  and  as  the  battle  opened, 
the  cannon  mowed  down  the  Arabs  with  fearful  effect  by 
means  of  grape  and  canister. 

The  assailants  were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss,  and  pur- 
sued about  six  miles  from  the  scene  of  the  battle.  The 
French  loss  was  trifling,  but  the  killed  included  Amadie 
de  Bourmont,  son  of  the  commander-in-chief,  who  fell 
while  leading  his  company  of  grenadiers. 

The  way  to  Algiers  was  now  open  to  the  French, 
though  their  advance  was  considerably  impeded  by  the 
light  troops  of  the  enemy,  who  disputed  every  point 
where  a  stand  could  be  made,  and  hovered  so  close  on 
the  flanks  of  the  column,  that  every  straggler  was  instantly 
cut  off  and  slaughtered.  The  French  advanced  leisurely, 
and  on  the  30th  of  June  took  th*:r  position  before,  or 
rather  behind,  the  cit}-,  in  front  of  t^e  Emperor's  Fort,  a 
quadrangular  structure  which  occupied  the  ground  where 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  three  centuries  earlier,  made  a 
disastrous  attack  upon  Algiers.  It  stands  on  the  plateau 
above  the  city,  and  commands  every  part  of  it  ;  the  dey 
thought  it  would  be  able  to  resist  the  invaders,  and  even 
when  they  sat  down  before  it  his  courage  did  not  desert 
him. 

The  French  brought  up  their  heavy  guns  and  began  the 
attack,  in  which  they  were  joined  by  the  light  artillery. 
The  batteries  were  completed  on  the  3d  of  July,  and  fire 
was  opened  on  the  following  day.  Not  since  the  bom- 
bardment by  Lord  Exmouth  in  18 16  had  such  a  contest 


74  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

raged  at  Algiers.  The  French  ships  of  the  line  approached 
the  front  of  the  city,  and  opened  fire  on  the  sea  defences 
almost  simultaneously  with  the  bombardment  of  the  fort. 
The  French  had  one  hundred  guns  in  battery,  while  the 
Algerines  had  more  than  double  that  number  in  the  fort, 
but  all  their  artillery  could  not  be  brought  to  bear  at  once. 
The  Algerines  served  their  guns  bravely,  but  their  fire  was 
greatly  inferior  to  that  of  the  French,  and  very  soon  the 
excellence  of  the  artillery  practice  of  the  latter  was  mani- 
fest. One  by  one  the  defenders'  guns  were  dismounted, 
the  walls  were  breached,  the  gunners  were  either  killed  or 
wounded  or  driven  from  their  batteries,  and  finally  the 
survivors  sought  refuge  in  a  huge  tower  in  the  middle  of 
the  fort.  Shortly  afterwards  the  tower  blew  up  with  an 
explosion  that  reduced  it  to  a  mass  of  ruins  and  killed 
nearly  all  those  who  had  fled  to  it  for  protection.  As 
soon  as  they  could  form,  the  French  grenadiers  assaulted 
and  carried  the  fort,  and  the  city  of  the  deys  was  in  the 
possession  of  a  Christian  power. 

The  dey  hoisted  the  white  flag  and  offered  to  surrender, 
for  which  purpose  he  sent  an  envoy  to  meet  General 
Bourmont  in  the  Emperor's  Fort.  Hussein  Pasha  hoped 
to  the  last  moment  to  retain  his  country  and  its  inde- 
pendence by  making  liberal  concessions  in  the  way  of  in- 
demnity for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and  offered  to  liberate 
all  Christian  slaves  in  addition  to  paying  them  for  their 
services  and  sufferings.  The  English  consul  tried  to 
mediate  on  this  basis,  but  his  offers  of  mediation  were 
politely  declined  ;  the  French  were  determined  on  nothing 
short  of  complete  conquest  and  the  utter  demolition  of 
this  nest  of  pirates,  that  had  so  long  scourged  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  countries  bordering  on  it.  It  was 
finally  agreed  that  the  dey  should  surrender  Algiers  with 
all  its  forts  and  military  stores,  and  be  permitted  to  retire 
wherever  he  chose  with  his  wives,  children,  and  personal 
belongings,  but  he  was  not  to  remain  in  the  country  under 


BATTLE    OF   STAOUELI  AND   FALL    OF  ALGIERS.      75 

any  circumstances.  On  the  5th  of  July  the  French  entered 
Algiers  in  great  ponnp  and  took  possession  of  the  place  ; 
they  respected  private  property,  and  in  a  proclamation 
General  Bourmont  offered  amnesty  to  all  who  had  op- 
posed him,  provided  they  laid  down  their  arms  at  once. 

The  spoils  of  war  were  such  as  rarely  fall  to  the  lot  of 
a  conquering  army,  when  its  numbers  and  the  circum- 
stances of  the  campaign  are  considered.  In  the  treasury 
was  found  a  large  room  filled  with  gold  and  silver  coins 
heaped  together  indiscriminately,  the  fruits  of  three 
centuries  of  piracy  ;  they  were  the  coins  of  all  the  na- 
tions that  had  suffered  from  the  depredations  of  the 
Algerines,  and  the  variety  in  the  dates  showed  very 
clearly  that  the  accumulation  had  been  the  work  of  two 
or  three  hundred  years.  How  much  money  was  con- 
tained in  this  vast  pile  is  not  known  ;  certain  it  is  that 
nearly  fifty  million  francs,  or  two  millions  sterling,  actually 
reached  the  French  treasur}%  and  it  is  not  known  that  the 
French  ofificers  and  soldiers  added  any  thing  to  the  origi- 
nal amount  from  their  private  purses. 

On  the  walls  and  ships-of-war  fifteen  hundred  and  forty- 
two  cannon  were  found,  of  which  six  hundred  and  seventy- 
were  of  bronze,  and  the  entire  value  of  the  public  property 
turned  over  to  the  French  government  was  estimated  at 
fifty-five  million  francs.  The  cost  of  the  war  was  much 
more  than  covered  by  the  captured  property ;  in  fact;  the 
money  alone  that  was  found  in  the  treasury  was  sufficient 
for  that  purpose.  Many  slaves  were  liberated,  among 
them  the  crews  of  two  French  brigs  that  had  been  cap- 
tured not  long  before.  The  total  loss  of  the  French  in 
the  campaign  was  six  hundred  killed  and  seventeen  hun- 
dred wounded,  while  that  of  the  Algerines  was  estimated 
at  double  those  figures,  the  proportion  of  the  killed  being 
greater  in  consequence  of  the  deadly  fire  of  the  French 
artillery. 

The  Algerine  power  was  forever  broken,  and  from  that 


'j6  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

day  Algeria  has  been  a  prosperous  colony  of  France.  Hus- 
sein Pasha  embarked  on  the  loth  of  July  with  a  suite  of 
one  hundred  and  ten  persons,  of  whom  fifty-five  were 
women.  He  proceeded  to  Naples  where  he  remained  for  a 
time,  went  afterwards  to  Leghorn,  and  finally  to  Egypt.  On 
his  arrival  in  that  country  Mohammed  Ali  Pasha  received 
him  with  the  consideration  due  to  his  high  rank  and  mis- 
fortunes, and  showed  him  marked  favor.  But  one  day,  after 
a  private  audience  with  Mohammed  Ali,  Hussein  retired 
to  his  apartments  and  died  in  convulsions,  probably  from 
a  dose  of  poison  administered  by  the  hand  of  the  slayer 
of  the  Mamelukes. 

On  a  marble  slab  over  the  principal  entrance  of  the  new 
barrack  at  Sidi-Ferruch  is  the  following  inscription : 

Ici 

le  14  Juin,  1830, 

Par  I'ordre  du  Roi  Charles  X., 

Sous  le  commandement  du  General  de 

BOURMONT, 

L'Armee  Frangaise 

Vint  arborer  ses  drapeaux, 

Rendre  la  Liberte  aux  mers, 

Donner  I'Alcrerie  a  la  France. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CAPTURE   OF   ANTWERP   AND  LIBERATION   OF  BELGIUM — 

1832. 

The  history  of  Belgium  as  an  independent  state  dates 
from  its  separation  from  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands 
in  1830.  It  had  previously  been  under  the  domination  of 
Spain,  Austria,  and  France,  and  finally,  in  the  general 
peace  which  followed  the  wars  of  Napoleon,  it  was  united 
with  Holland  under  Prince  William  Frederick  of  Orange- 
Nassau.  The  union  was  not  to  the  taste  of  the  Belgian 
people,  who  differed  materially  from  the  Dutch  in  lan- 
guage, religion,  and  occupations.  In  the  union  Holland, 
with  2,000,000  inhabitants,  was  to  have  an  equal  number 
of  representatives  with  Belgium's  4,000,000  ;  furthermore, 
the  national  debt  of  Belgium  was  only  4,000,000  florins, 
while  Holland  had  a  debt  of  1,200,000,000;  the  consoli- 
dated debt  was  to  be  assumed  by  both  countries,  and  would 
naturally  be  a  severe  and  unjust  burden  upon  Belgium 
with  its  superior  population.  In  the  convention  which 
passed  the  constitution  containing  these  objectionable 
provisions,  the  Belgians  who  dissented  were  in  actual 
majority,  but  all  absent  Belgians  were  held  to  have 
assented,  and  so  the  vote  was  carried.  The  use  of  the 
French  language  in  judicial  and  other  proceedings  was  to 
be  abolished,  and  there  were  other  conditions  equally  ob- 
jectionable. 

Officials  holding  Belgian  opinions  were  dismissed,  a 
severe    press   law   was   enacted,   and   several   persons   ob- 

77      ■ 


78  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

noxious  to  the  government  were  banished.  The  revolu- 
tions in  Paris  in  1830  caused  much  excitement  in  Belgium, 
and  in  August  of  that  year  there  was  an  outbreak  in  Brus- 
sels, speedily  followed  by  similar  manifestations  of  discon- 
tent in  other  cities  of  Belgium.  Insurrection  led  to  open 
warfare ;  Brussels,  Mons,  Ghent,  Liege,  and  other  places 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Belgians,  and  by  the  end  of 
October  only  Antwerp  remained  in  control  of  the  Dutch. 
General  Chasse,  the  Dutch  commander,  occupied  the 
citadel  of  Antwerp,  whence  he  subjected  the  city  to  a  two 
days'  bombardment,  doing  great  damage  to  property. 
Belgium  had  already  formed  a  provisional  government, 
and  after  the  bombardment  of  Antwerp  the  quarrel  was 
appealed  to  a  conference  of  the  European  powers  at  Lon- 
don. The  conference  ordered  an  armistice  and  the  retire- 
ment of  the  troops  of  Belgium  and  Holland  into  their  own 
countries,  acknowledged  the  independence  of  Belgium, 
bound  her  to  the  payment  of  a  portion  of  the  state  debt, 
and  left  her  to  the  management  of  her  own  affairs  inde- 
pendently of  Holland. 

In  July,  183 1,  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg  was  crowned 
king  of  the  Belgians  under  the  title  of  Leopold  I.  Soon 
after  his  coronation  he  found  himself  burdened  with  war, 
as  the  Dutch  in  violation  of  the  armistice  had  sent  an 
army  across  the  frontier.  With  an  unformed  government, 
a  hastily  organized  army,  and  a  kingdom  in  disorder,  the 
new  king  felt  unable  to  oppose  the  invaders,  and  in  his 
dilemma  he  appealed  to  France  for  aid.  The  aid  was 
promptly  given  ;  Marshal  Gerard,  accompanied  by  the 
Duke  of  Orleans,  marched  into  Belgium  with  60,000  men, 
whereupon  the  Dutch  retired  to  their  own  boundaries. 

The  conference  of  the  powers  determined  to  compel 
the  Dutch  to  give  up  the  citadel  of  Antwerp,  which  they 
still  held.  Accordingly  the  army  of  Marshal  Gerard  ad- 
vanced upon  Antwerp,  and  a  combined  English  and 
French   fleet  entered  the  Scheldt  to  co-operate  with  the 


79 


8o  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

army.  The  army  consisted  of  forty-eight  thousand  in- 
fantry, nine  thousand  cavalry,  and  six  thousand  artillery, 
the  latter  comprising  a  siege  train  for  the  special  purpose 
of  reducing  the  Antwerp  citadel.  The  British  fleet  com- 
prised five  ships  of  the  line,  the  French  fleet  included  three 
ships  of  the  line  and  five  frigates,  and  these  combined 
armaments  made  their  rendezvous  on  the  coast  of  England 
and  sailed  together  for  the  Scheldt.  It  was  an  odd  specta- 
cle to  see  England  and  France  co-operating  in  warfare 
after  centuries  of  enmity. 

For  more  than  a  year  the  town  of  Antwerp  had  been  in 
the  possession  of  Belgium  while  the  citadel  was  held  by 
General  Chasse,  the  Dutch  commander,  with  a  garrison  of 
five  thousand  men.  It  was  commonly  called  the  "  citadel 
du  Sud  "  to  distinguish  it  from  the  "  citadel  du  Nord  "  on 
the  other  side  of  Antwerp.  This  celebrated  fortress  was 
separated  from  the  city  by  an  esplanade,  and  commanded 
the  harbor,  as  it  was  close  to  the  bank  of  the  Scheldt.  It 
was  long  considered  one  of  the  strongest  places  in  Europe, 
and  owed  its  existence  to  the  Duke  of  Alva,  during  the 
war  between  Spain  and  the  United  Provinces  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  to  command  the  navigation  of  the  Scheldt 
and  be  the  principal  frontier  post  toward  Holland. 
Napoleon  added  greatly  to  its  strength  when  he  formed 
the  design  of  invading  England,  and  decided  upon 
Antwerp  as  his  base.  The  invention  of  rifled  cannon  in 
later  times  has  rendered  this  citadel  of  less  consequence 
than  formerly,  and  in  1874  it  was  dismantled,  but  not 
until  Antwerp  had  been  provided  with  other  and  more 
modern  defences, 

One  side  of  the  fortress  (towards  the  west)  was  pro- 
tected by  the  river ;  towards  the  land  it  was  covered  by 
several  strong  outworks,  but  these  were  of  little  avail  at 
the  time  of  the  siege,  as  the  garrison  was  not  sufficiently 
large  to  man  them  all.  The  garrison,  five  thousand 
strong,  was  composed  of  veteran  soldiers  who  were  well 


CAPTURE    OF  ANTWERP.  8 1 

worthy  of  their  leader,  General  Chassc  ;  the  fort  mounted 
one  hundred  and  eighty  guns,  most  of  them  of  heavy 
calibre,  and  the  fortress  was  well  supplied  with  ammuni- 
tion. Immense  casemates  and  covered  galleries  and 
lodgments  for  the  protection  of  the  troops  had  been 
constructed,  and  the  Dutch  general  was  prepared  for  a 
hard  fight.  The  French  army  had  an  enormous  battering 
train,  as  it  was  well  known  that  the  siege  of  Antwerp  would 
be  no  holiday  affair. 

The  French  crossed  the  frontier  at  Charleroi  on  the 
1 8th  November,  and  arrived  in  front  of  Antwerp  near  the 
end  of  the  month.  The  preliminary  work  of  the  siege 
was  begun  immediately,  and  at  the  same  time  there  was  a 
correspondence  between  the  Dutch  and  French  generals 
of  a  somewhat  novel  character.  General  Chass^  insisted 
that  the  French  should  not  make  use  of  the  works  of  the 
city  in  their  siege  operations,  otherwise  he  should  consider 
the  city  taking  part  in  the  siege  and  would  proceed  to 
bombard  it.  Marshal  Gerard  sent  the  following  letter  to 
General  Chass^ : 

"  Sir. — In  the  name  of  His  Majesty  the  King  of  the  Bel- 
gains,  I  ask  you  to  hand  over  the  citadel  and  all  the  forts 
along  the  Scheldt ;  if  not  so  disposed,  I  shall  force  you. 
Whatever  you  do,  mind  not  to  fire  on  the  city." 

To  this  summons  the  Dutch  commander  replied  as 
follows  : 

"  Sir. — I  shall  stick  to  my  post  as  long  as  life  will  last. 
The  city  is  safe.  Pray  stop  your  siege  works  before 
negotiations  have  come  to  an  end,  or  else  I  shall  fire." 

For  a  time  there  was  little  prospect  that  the  city  could 
be  spared  the  horrors  of  war,  and  preparations  were  made 
in  Antwerp  by  barricading  the  streets  and  removing  the 
pavements  so  as  to  reduce  as  much  as  possible  the 
effects  of  the  bombardment.  Many  people  left  the  city 
in  anticipation  of  their  worst  fears  being  realized,  but  it 
was  finally  agreed  that  the  city  with  all  its  outworks  should 


82  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

be  considered  neutral  by  both  parties  ;  the  fire  of  the 
citadel  was  to  be  directed  only  to  the  open  plain  to  the 
southeast,  and  the  approaches  of  the  besiegers  were  to  be 
only  from  that  direction.  It  was  a  novel  spectacle — peace 
reigning  all  around,  the  city  neutralized,  and  the  attack 
and  defence  limited  to  one  side  of  the  fort.  It  seemed 
more  a  trial  of  military  skill  than  an  instance  of  actual 
warfare. 

Operations  began  on  the  30th  November.  On  that  day 
the  following  letters  passed  between  the  commanders  : 

To  General  Chasse. 

Sir. — It  is  you  that  fired  the  first  shot  on  my  soldiers,  hence 
do  not  talk  any  longer  about  negotiations.  Surrender,  I  say 
again,  in  the  name  of  humanity,  and  all  will  be  well. 

Gerard. 

Head-quarters  at  Bouhem. 

To  Marshal  Gerard. 

Sir. — The  fault  is  with  you.  I  shall  fight  for  the  city,  and  it 
will  be  safe  as  long  as  you  will  not  force  me.  Chasse. 

Citadel  at  Antwerp. 

On  the  receipt  of  General  Chasse's  letter  Marshal 
Gerard  began  in  dead  earnest.  The  trenches  were  opened 
and  continued  night  and  day  amidst  torrents  of  rain. 
Soon  the  French  had  one  hundred  and  four  guns  in  posi- 
tion, throwing  solid  shot  and  shell  into  the  citadel.  On 
the  4th  of  December  all  the  batteries  began  playing  upon 
the  fortress  with  a  steady,  well-directed  fire,  which  was 
maintained  for  nineteen  days  without  cessation. 

The  return  fire  was  slow  at  first,  but  better  in  time  and 
admirably  directed.  Of  course,  no  vessels  or  boats  could 
pass  either  up  or  down  the  river  ;  a  few  that  tried  it  were 
fired  upon  and  taught  to  keep  aloof.  All  communication 
between  citadel  and  city  was  cut  off,  and  the  garrison  was 
thus  left  unsupported. 


CAPTURE    OF  ANTWERP.  83 

In  spite  of  the  steady  and  well-directed  fire  of  the 
citadel,  the  besiegers  made  steady  progress.  Their  third 
and  fourth  parallels  were  directed  against  the  lunette 
Saint  Laurent  ;  a  mine  was  run  under  one  of  its  bastions, 
and  sprung  on  the  night  of  the  14th  December,  making  a 
practicable  breach  in  the  walls.  Three  companies  of  the 
65th  French  regiment  assaulted  immediately,  passed  the 
ditch  without  firing  a  shot,  and  carried  the  breach  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet.  At  the  same  time  a  battalion  of 
grenadiers  took  advantage  of  the  springing  of  the  mine 
and  consequent  confusion  ;  they  scaled  the  walls  of  the 
lunette  on  the  opposite  side,  and  the  garrison  of  less  than 
three  hundred  men  was  compelled  to  retire  to  the  citadel 
with  the  loss  of  sixty  prisoners,  after  making  a  most  gal- 
lant defence. 

The  capture  of  this  position  was  of  great  advantage  to 
the  French,  as  it  enabled  them  to  bring  their  approaches 
close  to  the  edge  of  the  ditch  on  the  summit  of  the 
counterscarp.  General  Chass6  planned  a  sortie,  which  was 
led  by  Captain  Morr^.  It  resulted  in  the  capture  of  five 
mortars,  and  the  levelling  of  some  twenty-five  yards  of 
the  trenches,  but  the  working  force  of  French  was 
speedily  strengthened,  and  the  Dutch  were  beaten  back 
with  the  loss  of  their  captain,  who  was  killed.  Other 
sorties  were  made,  the  Dutch  displaying  great  bravery, 
but  the  retardation  of  the  work  of  the  besiegers  was 
hardly  sufficient  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  men. 
Night  and  day  the  bombardment  continued,  and  so  vigor- 
ously was  it  carried  on  that  as  many  as  fourteen  bombs 
were  seen  in  the  air  at  once. 

The  immense  casemates  of  the  citadel  were  not  strong 
enough  to  stand  the  French  fire.  The  casemates  were 
broken  through  by  the  weight  of  the  falling  bombs  ;  some 
of  the  missiles  penetrated  to  the  hospitals,  piercing  the 
six  feet  of  earth  piled  upon  the  roofing  of  heavy  timber, 
and   exploding  in  the   midst   of  the  sick  and   wounded. 


84  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

The  garrison  daily  diminished  from  the  effects  of  the  fire 
and  the  exhaustion  of  the  men,  who  were  obhged  to  be 
almost  constantly  under  arms  ;  forty  heav^y  guns,  mounted 
on  the  edge  of  the  counterscarp,  converged  their  fire  upon 
the  bastion  of  Toledo,  and  the  high  brick  walls  tumbled 
in  ruins  from  its  effect. 

On  the  23d  of  December  General  Chasse  wisely  con- 
cluded that  he  had  prolonged  the  defence  quite  as  long 
as  was  required  either  by  military  honor  or  state  policy, 
and  that  further  resistance  was  useless.  He  hoisted  a 
white  flag,  and  the  firing  ceased  immediately.  Two 
Dutch  ofiflcers  were  sent  to  treat  for  terms  and  ask  that 
the  garrison  be  allowed  to  retire  with  the  honors  of  war. 
Marshal  Gerard  immediately  granted  the  request,  and  the 
rest  of  the  matter  was  arranged  in  a  few  minutes.  The 
Dutch  were  to  surrender  the  citadel,  with  the  forts  of 
Lillo  and  Liefkenshock  farther  down  the  river  and  com- 
manding navigation  from  the  sea  to  Antwerp.  The  gar- 
rison was  to  retire  into  Holland  with  its  colors  and  arms, 
but  all  government  property  inside  the  fort  was  to  be 
given  up  to  Belgium.  The  commander  of  the  Dutch 
flotilla  tried  to  break  through  the  French  lines,  but  finding 
he  could  not  do  so,  he  burned  his  gun-boats  rather  than 
surrender  them  to  the  enemy. 

When  the  terms  of  the  surrender  were  submitted  to 
the  king  of  Holland,  he  refused  to  ratify  them,  so  far  as 
the  forts  down  the  river  were  concerned,  on  the  ground 
that  they  were  not  under  General  Chasse's  orders  at  the 
time  of  the  capitulation.  Marshal  Gerard  then  offered  to 
let  the  garrison  of  the  citadel  retire  into  Holland  with 
their  arms  upon  the  simple  obligation  not  to  serve  again 
against  France  or  Belgium  during  the  continuance  of 
hostilities,  but  General  Chass6  refused  to  do  so.  He  said 
it  would  not  be  in  accord  with  the  original  terms  of 
capitulation,  and  therefore  he  and  his  men  must  be 
treated  as  prisoners  of  war.     At  an  appointed  time  the 


CAPTURE   OF  ANTWERP.  85 

garrison  marched  out  and  piled  their  arms,  and  were  then 
marched  back  into  the  citadel,  where  they  took  food  with 
their  late  antagonists,  from  whom  they  received  every 
courtesy.  Afterwards  they  were  taken  to  France  as  pris- 
oners of  war  ;  General  Chasse  wished  to  march  with  them, 
but  with  his  seventy  years  of  age,  added  to  the  fatigues 
and  excitement  of  the  siege,  he  was  so  broken  down,  that 
he  was  unable  to  enter  a  carriage  without  assistance. 

Rarely,  if  ever,  was  a  siege  conducted  with  so  much 
chivalry  and  courtesy  as  that  of  the  citadel  of  Antwerp. 
The  stipulation  regarding  the  neutrality  of  the  city  and 
the  restrictions  of  the  line  of  fire  of  both  parties  are  note- 
worthy, and  so  well  were  they  carried  out,  that  not  a 
single  non-combatant  beyond  the  lines  was  harmed  in 
person  or  property.  An  eye-witness  of  the  siege  says 
that  when  Marshal  Gerard,  in  company  with  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  entered  the  citadel  to  meet  his  opponent,  General 
Chasse,  he  found  the  latter  standing  near  the  casemates, 
amidst  a  heap  of  ruins.  "  Quickly  he  walked  forward, 
extending  his  hand.  'Count,'  he  said,  'all  these  ruins 
speak  of  your  prowess.'  But  no  reply  fell  from  the  lips 
of  the  saddened  old  man,  who  was  too  much  cast  down 
to  be  able  to  speak." 

At  the  time  the  white  flag  was  displayed  all  was  ready 
for  the  assault,  which  would  have  been  made  within  a  few 
hours.  The  same  eye-witness  who  is  quoted  above  says: 
"  It  was  well  that  the  surrender  was  made  without  a 
previous  assault  ;  for,  according  to  the  French  officers, 
there  would  have  been  a  terrible  slaughter  following  it. 
'  Friendly  though  we  were  with  the  Dutch  the  eve  before, 
exchanging  courtesies,'  said  one  of  them,  '  our  soldiers 
would  have  changed  in  a  moment,  sparing  nobody.  We 
cannot  help  being  so  ;  it  is  the  nature  of  the  soldier 
everywhere.'  " 

Commenting  on  the  siege  of  Antwerp,  the  author  of 
"  Alison's  History  of  Europe,"  who  was  personally  present 


86  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

in  the  latter  part  of  the  operations,  pronounces  it  one  of 
the  most  memorable  sieges  of  which  the  annals  of  Europe 
make  mention.  "  Such  had  been  the  intrepidity  of  the 
governor  and  the  courage  of  the  garrison,  that  five  thou- 
sand men  kept  sixty  thousand  at  bay  during  twenty-four 
days  of  open  trenches,  during  which  the  fire,  both  of 
artillery  and  small-arms,  was  incessant,  and  besiegers  and 
besieged  were  alike  standing  to  their  guns  day  and  night 
through  the  severities  of  a  rude  season,  in  the  depth  of 
winter.  It  is  hard  to  say  whether,  in  such  circumstances, 
there  is  most  to  admire  in  the  vigor  and  perseverance  of 
the  besiegers,  or  the  devotion  and  constancy  of  the  be- 
sieged. Both  sides  made  the  utmost  efforts  during  the 
continuance  of  the  operations.  The  besiegers  opened  up 
14,000  fathoms  of  trenches.  The  artillery  discharged 
63,000  shots,  and  they  took  5,000  men  by  capitulation. 
The  Dutch  lost  90  killed,  349  wounded,  and  6"]  prisoners 
during  the  siege.  But  the  losses  of  the  besiegers  were 
much  more  considerable  :  they  amounted  to  608  killed 
and   1,800  wounded." 

The  other  forts,  Lillo  and  Liefkenshock,  were  not 
evacuated,  and  the  French  proposed  to  operate  against 
them  ;  King  Leopold  declared  himself  satisfied  to  hold 
Limburg  and  Luxemburg  against  them,  and  so  the  French 
army  retired  across  the  frontier  into  its  own  country.  The 
king  of  Holland  refused  to  accept  the  situation,  and 
declared  that  he  would  continue  the  war,  but  the  blockade 
of  the  ports  of  his  country  by  the  combined  fleets  of 
France  and  England,  and  the  consequent  paralysis  of 
Dutch  commerce,  were  not  long  in  bringing  him  to  his 
senses.  England  and  France  informed  him  in  the  most 
emphatic  terms  that  no  interference  with  the  march  of 
Belgium  towards  independence  would  be  permitted,  and 
that  at  the  first  move  he  made  in  that  direction  the 
French  army  would  be  summoned  back  again  and  the 
consequences  might  be  very  serious  for  his  kingdom.      In 


CAPTURE    OF  ANTWERP.  87 

the  resumption  of  negotiations  there  was  no  difficulty  in 
settHng  the  principal  points  of  the  convention  ;  the  agree- 
ment turned  chief!}'  on  the  minor  points  of  trade  and 
commercial  relations,  in  which  Holland  displayed  the 
obstinacy  for  which  the  Dutch  are  traditionally  renowned. 

On  the  19th  May,  1833,  a  convention  was  agreed  to 
and  signed,  and  the  long  quarrel  was  practically  over. 
All  Dutch  vessels  that  had  been  seized  by  France  or 
England  were  to  be  released  immediately  and  restored, 
with  their  cargoes,  to  their  owners,  and  all  Dutch  prisoners 
were  to  be  liberated.  Holland  agreed  not  to  reopen  hos- 
tilities with  Belgium,  and  the  navigation  of  the  Scheldt 
was  to  be  kept  open  as  it  had  been  prior  to  November  i, 
1832.  The  Meuse,  which  flows  through  Holland  in  the 
lower  part  of  its  course,  was  also  opened  commercially 
for  Belgian  vessels,  on  condition  that  certain  duties  fixed 
for  the  states  of  the  German  Confederation  should  be  paid. 
It  was  further  agreed  that  Holland  and  Belgium  should 
proceed  to  the  negotiation  of  a  treaty  for  a  definitive  and 
permanent  peace.  As  all  the  points  of  the  treaty  were 
practically  settled  it  was  supposed  that  the  negotiations 
would  present  no  difificulty,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  owing 
to  the  obstinacy  of  the  king  of  Holland,  it  was  not 
completed  until  1839.  Even  then  it  was  only  accom- 
plished at  the  dictation  of  the  European  powers.  Luxem- 
burg and  Limburg  were  divided  between  the  contending 
nations,  Holland  receiving  the  eastern  divisions,  with  the 
fortresses  of  Maestricht,  Venloo,  and  Luxemburg.  The 
independence  and  neutrality  of  Belgium  were  guaranteed, 
and  the  country  was  enabled  to  enter  upon  a  career 
of  commercial  and  industrial  prosperity. 

Since  the  conclusion  of  the  above-named  treaty  with 
Holland,  Belgium  has  had  no  taste  of  the  horrors  of  war 
within  her  borders,  other  than  the  use  of  the  military 
on  several  occasions  for  the  suppression  of  disturbances 
among  workmen  in  mines  or  in  manufacturing  establish- 


SS  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

ments.  In  all  the  wars  of  other  powers  Belgium  has 
maintained  a  strict  neutrality.  In  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
of  1870  she  forbade  the  sale  of  war  munitions  to  either  of 
the  contending  parties,  and  disarmed  and  interned  all 
soldiers  of  either  army  that  entered  her  territory.  Her 
peace  was  seriously  threatened  at  one  time  during  that 
war,  but  was  saved  through  the  conclusion  of  a  triple 
treaty  between  England,  France,  and  Prussia,  by  which 
the  independence  and  neutrality  of  Belgium  were  guaran- 
teed under  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  1839. 

*  *  *  4fr  *  *  * 

For  nearly  fifteen  years  following  the  siege  of  Antwerp 
and  the  establishment  of  Belgium  as  an  independent  king- 
dom the  general  peace  of  Europe  and  America  continued. 
Spain  suffered  to  some  extent  from  civil  war  ;  Don  Carlos 
in  April,  1833,  declared  himself  the  legitimate  successor 
to  the  king,  and  the  result  was  the  Carlist  war  of  that 
period,  which  continued  with  varying  fortunes  until  the 
final  overthrow  of  the  pretender  in  1839.  In  1840,  and 
the  three  succeeding  years,  there  were  various  revolu- 
tionary movements  in  Spain,  most  of  them  resulting  in 
bloodshed  and  some  in  hostilities  of  considerable  magni- 
tude, but  in  the  final  result  the  succession  to  the  throne 
was  not  disturbed,  and  Spain  suffered  no  loss,  or  made  no 
increase,  of  territory. 

Russia  was  at  peace  with  her  European  neighbors.  Her 
impatient  eyes  were  fixed  upon  Asia,  and  in  1839-40,  she 
sent  an  expedition  for  the  conquest  of  Khiva.  It  had  a 
disastrous  result,  and  for  more  than  thirty  years  thereafter 
Khiva  retained  her  independence  in  the  midst  of  the 
desert  sands  of  Central  Asia. 

In  1835  began  the  "opium  war  "  between  China  and 
England,  growing  out  of  the  proclamation  of  the  Chinese 
emperor  prohibiting  the  importation  of  the  pernicious 
drug  into  his  dominions.  Opium  was  the  chief  source 
of  revenue  of  the  British  in  India,  and  consequently  Eng- 


CAPTURE    OF  ANTWERP.  89 

land  determined  to  foster  her  commerce  regardless  of  the 
consequences  to  Ciiina  or  its  people.  The  war  continued 
until  1842,  when  the  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  front 
of  Nankin.  B}'  the  terms  of  the  treaty  China  paid  an 
indemnity  of  $21,000,000,  opened  the  ports  of  Canton, 
Amoy,  Foochow,  Ningpo,  and  Shanghai  to  foreigners, 
and  ceded  the  island  of  Hong  Kong  in  perpetuity  to 
England. 

England  in  1839  ventured  upon  the  Afghan  war,  which, 
at  first  successful,  terminated  in  disaster  ;  of  3,849  soldiers 
and  about  12,000  camp  followers,  composing  the  army  of 
General  Elphinstone,  only  one  European  (Dr.  Brydon) 
and  four  natives  succeeded  in  reaching  the  British  lines. 
General  Sale's  brigade  was  less  unfortunate,  as  it  held  Jel- 
lalabad  until  a  fresh  division  could  be  sent  from  India  to 
enable  it  to  retire  without  being  destroyed.  The  attempt 
of  England  upon  Afghanistan  ended  in  1842.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  occurred  the  Scinde  war,  resulting  in  the 
annexation  of  Scinde  to  the  British  possessions ;  and  in 
1843,  also,  came  the  Gwalior  war,  in  which  the  fortress  of 
Gwalior,  the  "  Gibraltar  of  the  East,"  fell  into  British 
hands.  In  1845  began  the  Sikh  war,  of  which  more  will 
be  said  elsewhere. 

In  1831-33  Mohammed  Ali  Pasha,  the  sultan's  viceroy 
in  Eg)'pt,  waged  a  war  against  Turkey  in  the  effort  to 
obtain  complete  independence.  He  conquered  Syria  and 
a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  would  have  captured  Con- 
stantinople if  the  great  powers  had  not  interfered  to  pre- 
vent the  possible  destruction  of  the  Ottoman  power  in 
Europe.  A  similar  war  took  place  in  1839,  in  which 
Mohammed  Ali  Pasha  fought  to  secure  hereditary  power. 
England,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia  interfered  for  the  pro- 
tection of  Turkey  and  expelled  the  Egyptians  from  Syria  ; 
Mohammed  Ali  was  made  hereditary  viceroy  of  Egypt, 
but  his  territory  was  reduced  through  the  loss  of  nearly 
all  that  he  had  gained  in  the  first  war  against  Turkey. 


go  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

During  this  period  South  America  was  the  scene  of  a 
few  revolutionary  movements,  resuhing  in  skirmishes  and 
small  battles  that  had  no  material  consequences  to  any 
but  the  parties  immediately  concerned.  No  changes  of 
the  maps  occurred  by  reason  of  these  disturbances,  and 
they  are  not  even  worthy  of  mention  by  name  in  our 
chronicle  of  events. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

CAPTURE    OF   THE    CITY    OF    MEXICO — 1 847. 

During  three  decades  from  the  close  of  the  war  with 
Great  Britain  in  1 812-15  the  United  States  of  America 
remained  at  peace  with  the  rest  of  the  world.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  third  decade  there  was  imminent  danger 
of  another  conflict  with  Great  Britain,  growing  out  of 
a  dispute  about  the  boundary  between  Maine  and  New 
Brunswick  ;  an  appeal  to  arms  was  averted  mainly  through 
the  efforts  of  General  Winfield  Scott,  and  the  quarrel  was 
effectually  ended  by  the  Ashburton  treaty  of  1842. 

While  this  dispute  with  the  mother  country  was  in 
progress,  another  and  more  serious  quarrel,  so  far  as  re- 
sults were  concerned,  arose  concerning  our  southwestern 
boundary.  The  present  State  of  Texas  was  formerly  a 
province  of  Mexico,  having  been  ceded  to  Spain  in  18 19, 
before  the  separation  of  Mexico  from  the  kingdom  of 
Castile  and  Leon.  Many  American  citizens  settled  in 
Texas  while  it  was  a  Mexican  possession,  but  owing  to 
the  difTerence  in  the  laws  of  the  two  countries  they 
earnestly  desired  to  come  under  the  protection  of  the 
United  States  flag.  The  United  States  endeavored  to 
purchase  the  territory  as  far  as  the  Rio  del  Norte,  but 
the  Mexican  government  rejected  the  proposal.  In  1830 
the  Mexicans  forbade  further  colonization  of  Texas  by 
foreigners,  but  by  this  time  the  foreigners  in  Texas, 
chiefly  Americans,  far  outnumbered  the  Mexican  in- 
habitants.    The  bad   state  of  feeling  between   Mexicans 

91 


92  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

and  Americans  grew  into  insurrection,  and  insurrection 
into   revolution. 

By  the  beginning  of  1835  Texas  and  Mexico  were 
at  war ;  the  former  fighting  for  independence,  and 
the  latter  endeavoring  to  reduce  its  alleged  subjects 
to  a  proper  acknowledgment  of  the  Mexican  authority. 
Several  battles  were  fought  during  the  year,  and  by  the 
victory  of  San  Antonio  de  Bexar,  December  loth,  the 
whole  armed  force  of  the  Mexicans  was  driven  from 
Texas,  which  ten  days  later  made  a  declaration  of  in- 
dependence. The  expulsion  of  the  Mexicans  was  only 
temporary;  early  in  1836  General  Santa  Anna  came  with 
an  army  of  seven  thousand  five  hundred  men  well  pro- 
vided with  provisions,  artillery,  and  military  stores,  and 
late  in  February  he  invested  the  Alamo,  a  strong  fort  near 
San  Antonio,  garrisoned  by  Captain  Travis  and  one 
hundred  and  seventy-two  men.  The  Alamo  was  besieged 
for  eleven  days  and  then  carried  by  storm ;  the  whole 
garrison  was  slaughtered,  only  a  woman,  a  child,  and  a 
servant  being  spared.  The  massacre  at  the  Alamo, 
together  with  the  massacre  of  Colonel  Fannin's  command 
at  Goliad,  March  27th,  in  violation  of  the  terms  of  sur- 
render, roused  the  Texans  to  a  high  state  of  excitement, 
and  they  would  listen  to  nothing  short  of  complete  inde- 
pendence of  Mexico. 

Near  the  end  of  April  was  fought  the  battle  of  San 
Jacinto,  in  which  the  Mexicans  were  defeated  with  heavy 
loss  and  General  Santa  Anna  was  made  a  prisoner.  This 
battle  virtually  ended  the  war  for  Texan  independence, 
which  was  acknowledged  by  the  United  States  in  1837, 
and  by  France,  England,  Holland,  and  Belgium  in  1839- 
40.  Between  1841  and  1843  Mexico  sent  several  maraud- 
ing expeditions  into  Texas ;  the  Texans  attempted 
reprisals  by  three  expeditions,  which  were  unsuccessful, 
many  of  those  who  participated  being  captured  and 
executed.      After  considerable    negotiation,   Texas    was 


rninnrir 


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93 


94  DECISIVE  BATTIES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

annexed  to  the  United  States  in  1845,  ^"^^  this  annexation 
led  to  a  war  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico. 
The  war  began  in  1845  ^^^  ended  in  1848,  the  result 
being  highly  favorable  to  the  armies  of  the  former  country 
and  proportionally  disastrous  to  those  of  the  latter. 

Hostilities  did  not  actually  begin  until  March,  1846, 
when  General  Zachary  Taylor's  army  crossed  the  Nueces 
and  marched  in  the  direction  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Mexico 
denied  that  Texas  extended  to  the  Rio  Grande,  and  per- 
sisted in  regarding  the  Nueces  as  the  boundary.  When, 
therefore,  General  Taylor  crossed  the  latter  river  the 
movement  was  considered  by  the  Mexicans  an  act  of  war, 
and  they  made  immediate  preparations  for  resisting  the 
advance  of  the  enemy.  Taylor's  advance  was  a  series  of 
almost  uninterrupted  successes,  and  in  the  early  part  of 
1847  Northern  Mexico  lay  at  his  feet.  The  American 
flag  floated  over  the  fortress  of  Monterey,  and  the  Mexi- 
can army,  four  times  the  strength  of  its  opponents,  had 
been  defeated  at  Buena  Vista.  To  complete  the  conquest 
it  was  necessary  to  move  upon  the  capital,  a  work 
which  was  intrusted  to  General  Winfield  Scott,  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  armies  of  the  United  States. 

On  the  6th  of  March,  1847,  the  army  destined  for  the 
advance  to  the  city  of  Mexico  was  concentrated  near  Vera 
Cruz.  It  comprised  the  then  standing  army  of  the 
United  States — four  regiments  of  artillery,  eight  of  in- 
fantry, one  of  mounted  riflemen,  and  detachments  of 
dragoons,  besides  eight  volunteer  regiments  of  infantry 
and  one  of  cavalry.  General  Scott  commanded  in  person, 
with  Generals  Worth,  Twiggs,  and  Patterson  as  his  briga- 
diers. Under  the  last  named  were  Generals  Quitman, 
Pillow,  and  Shields,  who  were  destined  to  make  their 
names  known  before  the  end  of  the  campaign.  The  first 
step  in  advancing  upon  the  city  of  Mexico  was  to  capture 
Vera  Cruz,  which  was  defended  by  the  fortress  of  San 
Juan  d'Uloa,  a  fortress  built  on  a  reef  in  front  of  the  city 


96  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

and  having  full  command  of  the  harbor.  The  fortress 
was  considered  by  the  Mexicans  to  be  impregnable  ;  it 
mounted  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  guns  of  various 
calibres,  and  its  walls  were  regarded  as  proof  against  any 
shot  or  shell  the  Americans  could  throw  against  it.  On 
the  land  side  the  city  was  defended  by  walls  mounting 
ninety  guns,  and  so  sure  were  the  Mexicans  of  their 
ability  to  resist  attack,  that  they  neglected  to  provision 
the  fortress  and  city  for  a  siege,  and  also  neglected  to 
send  away  women,  children,  and  other  non-combatants. 
The  American  troops  landed  without  opposition  about 
three  miles  from  the  city  and  out  of  range  of  the  guns, 
and  immediately  prepared  for  the  siege.  By  the  evening 
of  the  1 2th  of  March  the  place  was  completely  invested 
by  the  troops,  and  the  work  of  landing  the  siege  artillery 
was  pushed  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

By  the  22d  every  thing  was  ready,  and  then  General 
Scott  sent  a  summons  to  General  Morales,  the  command- 
er of  the  Mexican  forces  at  Vera  Cruz,  to  surrender  the 
city  and  the  fortress.  Immediately  on  receiving  a  refusal, 
General  Scott  opened  fire  from  his  batteries,  which  had 
been  erected  at  a  distance  of  eleven  hundred  yards.  A 
steady  cannonade  was  maintained  all  through  the 
night  and  the  next  day.  It  was  found  that  the  bat- 
teries were  too  light  and  too  far  away  for  breaching 
purposes,  and  on  the  night  of  the  23d  a  new  battery 
considerably  nearer  the  city  was  constructed  and  made 
ready  to  open  fire  in  the  morning.  The  value  and 
importance  of  the  new  battery  was  evident  in  a  few 
hours  after  fire  was  opened.  The  walls  were  crumbling, 
and  the  American  guns  had  such  perfect  range  of  the 
city  that  the  whole  place  was  covered  by  a  destructive 
fire.  By  the  26th  there  was  a  practicable  breach,  and  the 
troops  for  the  assault  had  already  been  told  off  when  a 
white  flag  appeared  on  the  walls,  and  soon  afterwards  the 
fortress  and  the  city  were  under  the  domination  of  the 


97 


98  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

invaders.  Officers  and  men  were  paroled  not  to  serve 
during  the  war  unless  exchanged  ;  the  officers  retained 
their  side-arms,  but  the  muskets  of  the  rank  and  file  were 
piled  in  front  of  the  conquerors.  All  public  property  of 
every  name  and  kind  was  handed  over  with  the  surren- 
dered place. 

Nearly  two  weeks  were  required  to  get  the  army  in 
readiness  for  an  advance  into  the  interior,  which  was  led 
on  the  8th  of  April  by  General  Twiggs,  The  Mexicans 
were  severely  defeated,  and  their  army  was  cut  up  and 
routed  at  Cerro  Gordo,  where  Scott  lost  a  total  of  four 
hundred  and  thirty-one  killed  and  wounded  out  of  a  force 
of  eighty-five  hundred  of  all  arms.  The  Mexicans  left  up- 
wards of  a  thousand  men  dead  on  the  field  of  battle.  La 
Hoya,  Perote,  and  Puebla  were  occupied  with  little 
opposition,  and  at  Puebla  General  Scott  waited  for 
reinforcements,  which  arrived  during  June  and  July. 
Early  in  August,  with  a  force  of  not  quite  eleven  thou- 
sand men,  he  advanced  towards  the  valley  of  Mexico, 
leaving  Colonel  Childs  with  a  garrison  of  eleven  hundred 
men  to  hold  Puebla.  General  Twiggs  led  the  column 
with  his  division,  which  found  the  ascent  of  the  Cordil- 
leras very  difficult  ;  on  the  third  day  of  the  march  the 
division  reached  the  crest  of  the  ridge  and  looked  down 
into  the  valley  of  Mexico,  where  the  soldiers  camped  that 
night  on  the  borders  of  Lake  Chalco. 

The  delay  of  General  Scott  on  the  road  from  Vera 
Cruz  had  been  utilized  by  the  Mexicans  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Santa  Anna,  who  had  collected  an  army  of  25,ocxD 
men  to  oppose  and  expel  the  invaders.  The  defences  of 
the  city  had  been  strengthened,  and  all  the  natural  advan- 
tages of  its  position  were  utilized.  Between  the  Ameri- 
can army  and  the  city  lay  the  lakes  Xochimilco  and  Chalco, 
bordered  by  marshes  which  extended  around  the  city  on 
the  west  and  south.  The  only  approaches  were  by  cause- 
ways, which  had  been  fortified  at  several  points  ;  on  the 


CAPTURE   OF  THE   CITY  OF  MEXICO.  99 

north  side  of  tlie  lakes  was  the  National  Road  dominated 
by  El  Pefion,  a  steep  hill  on  which  was  a  fort  mounting 
fifty-one  guns.  On  the  southern  side  of  the  lakes  there 
was  a  field  of  lava  considered  impassable  by  troops,  in 
addition  to  fortified  positions  at  San  Antonio,  San  Angelo, 
and  Churubusco,  with  an  intrenched  camp  at  Contreras, 
which  commanded  the  southern  causeways  and  must  be 
passed  before  they  could  be  reached.  Beyond  these  posi- 
tions were  the  castle  of  Chapultepec  and  the  strong  in- 
closure  of  Molino  del  Rey  protecting  the  approach  to  the 
city  gates.  General  Santa  Anna  had  disposed  his  troops 
so  that  all  the  positions  were  strongly  garrisoned,  and  his 
men  outnumbered  the  Americans  nearly  three  to  one. 

The  engineers  reported  that  the  fortress  on  El  Pefion 
would  cost  the  loss  of  a  third  of  the  army  to  effect  its  cap- 
ture. Reluctant  to  make  this  sacrifice,  Scott  decided  to 
move  to  the  south  of  the  lakes,  and,  accordingly,  sent 
General  Worth  in  advance  as  far  as  San  Augustin,  about 
nine  miles  from  the  city,  where  lay  the  pedrcgal,  a  large 
field  of  lava  which  the  Mexicans  had  considered  impassa- 
ble by  the  Americans.  Two  miles  further  on  lay  the  forti- 
fied position  of  San  Antonio,  which  commanded  the  route 
between  the  lake  and  the  lava  field,  and  about  three  miles 
distant  was  the  entrenched  camp  of  Contreras,  held  by 
General  Valencia  with  a  strong  garrison  and  a  heavy 
batter^'.  Scott  determined  to  attack  on  both  sides,  and 
sent  Worth  forward  on  the  east  while  Pillow  and  Twiggs 
went  to  the  west.  The  latter  advanced  over  the  fields  of 
lava  and  thus  astonished  the  Mexicans  ;  the  way  was  diffi- 
cult for  infantry  and  next  to  impossible  for  artillery,  but 
Twiggs  managed  to  get  a  couple  of  light  batteries  in  posi- 
tion by  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the  9th,  with  which 
he  opened  fire  on  the  camp.  His  movement  was  supported 
by  General  Persifer  Smith,  who  endeavored  to  turn  the 
Mexican  left,  and  so  well  was  the  plan  carried  out  that 
Santa  Anna,  who  was  advancing  to  the  relief  of  General 


ICX)  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Valencia,  was  frightened  into  turning  back.  The  ground 
was  so  broken  that  he  could  not  ascertain  the  strength  of 
the  battle  array  that  spread  before  him,  and,  believing  it 
much  larger  than  it  really  was,  he  made  haste  to  retire  in 
the  direction  of  the  city. 

It  rained  during  the  night  of  the  19th  of  August,  and 
the  troops  were  encamped  in  the  mud  without  fires. 
Early  on  the  20th  operations  were  resumed,  and  before 
five  o'clock  in  the  morning  the  fortified  camp  of  Contreras 
was  in  possession  of  the  Americans.  The  only  severe 
fighting  was  in  the  camp  itself,  where  the  Mexicans  made 
a  stout  resistance  before  retiring.  The  American  loss  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  missing  was  about  one  hundred  men, 
while  that  of  the  Mexicans  is  thought  to  have  been  fifteen 
hundred  killed  and  wounded.  One  thousand  Mexican 
prisoners  were  taken,  including  four  generals  and  eighty- 
eight  ofKicers  of  other  grades.  General  Valencia  escaped 
early  in  the  battle,  and  was  nowhere  to  be  found. 

After  a  brief  halt  to  take  breath,  the  army  was  again  in 
motion  in  the  direction  of  Churubusco,  which  Santa  Anna 
considered  the  key  to  the  city  and  was  ready  to  defend 
with  twenty-five  thousand  men.  There  was  a  massive 
stone  convent  in  the  village  of  Churubusco,  which  was 
surrounded  by  a  field-work  having  embrasures  and  plat- 
forms for  many  cannon,  and  was  the  right  point  of  the 
Mexican  line.  The  walls  of  the  convent  were  pierced  for 
musketry,  the  parapets  of  the  azoteas  and  windows 
afforded  good  positions  for  troops,  and  there  was  an 
abundance  of  ammunition  stored  in  the  building.  Be- 
yond the  convent  there  extended  a  line  of  works,  com- 
manding the  causeway  of  San  Antonio  and  capable  of  a 
strong  resistance.  Happily  for  the  Americans,  the  Mexi- 
cans were  in  great  confusion  at  the  time  the  former  ad- 
vanced, and  only  General  Rincon's  division,  which  held 
the  convent  and  the  position  immediately  around  it,  was 
ready  for  battle.     The  army  which  Santa  Anna  had  led 


CAPTURE    OF  THE    CITY  OF  MEXICO.  lOI 

back  from  San  Angclo  was  forming  along  the  river  Churu- 
busco  and  in  the  cornfields  to  the  north,  but  as  there  was 
no  expectation  of  a  battle  on  that  day,  the  Mexicans  were 
practically  taken  by  surprise.  But  in  spite  of  their  sur- 
prise and  confusion,  they  made  a  vigorous  defence  ;  they 
outnumbered  the  Americans  in  the  field  fully  five  to  one, 
and  should  have  been  invincible  from  their  numbers  and 
position.  The  incompetence  of  the  ofificers  and  the  in- 
ferior character  of  the  Mexican  weapons  were  the  chief 
causes  of  their  loss  of  the  battle  at  Churubusco.  Where 
properly  handled,  they  showed  that  they  were  not  defi- 
cient in  bravery,  and  on  several  occasions  during  the 
battle  they  came  very  near  defeating  and  repulsing  their 
assailants. 

Space  is  lacking  to  give  in  detail  the  movements  at 
Churubusco,  which  resulted  in  victory  to  the  American 
arms.  According  to  General  Santa  Anna,  the  Mexican 
loss  was  ten  thousand  men,  or  one  third  of  his  army  ;  one 
fourth  of  this  number  were  prisoners,  the  rest  killed  or 
wounded.  The  American  loss  was  over  one  thousand  in 
killed  and  wounded,  of  whom  seventy-nine  were  officers. 
General  Scott  might  have  marched  against  the  city  and 
captured  it  on  the  following  morning,  or  even  on  that 
night,  and  taken  possession  before  the  Mexicans  had 
recovered  from  the  shock  of  their  defeat.  But  he  was 
anxious  to  shorten  the  war,  and  was  told  that  Santa  Anna 
wished  to  negotiate  ;  he  was  furthermore  assured  that 
the  occupation  of  the  city  would  destroy  the  last  chance 
of  a  peaceable  settlement  by  rousing  the  national  spirit 
throughout  Mexico  and  causing  the  rush  of  many  thou- 
sands to  arms.  The  assurances  to  this  effect  came  from 
neutral  foreigners  residing  in  Mexico,  and  Scott  does  not 
seem  to  have  understood  their  interested  motives  for 
saving  the  city  from  occupation.  He  ofTered  an  armistice, 
which  was  eagerly  accepted  ;  it  lasted  more  than  a  fort- 
night, and  the  time  was  vigorously  utilized  by  the  Mexi- 


I02  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

cans  in  making  ready  for  the  defence  of  the  city.  When 
it  expired,  Santa  Anna  was  not  quite  ready  and  sought  an 
extension,  but  the  terms  offered  by  General  Scott  were 
considered  too  onerous,  and  the  campaign  was  renewed. 
Early  in  September  the  treachery  of  the  Mexicans  became 
apparent  in  a  letter  from  Santa  Anna  to  General  Scott, 
and  on  the  7th  of  that  month  preparations  for  another 
conflict  were  under  way. 

The  American  forces  were  distributed  as  follows  during 
the  armistice  : .  Worth  occupied  Tacubaya,  Pillow  was  at 
Mixcoac,  and  Twiggs  near  San  Angelo,  while  Quitman 
remained  at  Tlalpam.  It  had  been  suggested  to  General 
Scott  that  there  was  a  cannon  foundry  in  operation  at 
Molino  del  Rey  or  the  King's  Mill.  Worth  was  therefore 
instructed  to  take  possession  of  it,  which  was  thought  to 
be  an  easy  task.  Afterwards,  if  successful  there,  he 
could  try  an  assault  on  Chapultepec,  the  southern  fort 
of  Mexico.  An  examination  of  Molino  del  Rey  showed 
that  the  proposed  attack  would  not  be  successful  without 
a  reinforcement  of  artillery.  The  Molino  consisted  of  a 
range  of  massive  stone  buildings  with  crenellated  walls 
and  parapeted  roofs,  commanded  by  the  plunging  fire  of 
Chapultepec  at  a  distance  of  three  thousand  feet.  There 
was  a  smaller,  but  equally  solid  building,  the  Casa  Mata, 
fifteen  hundred  feet  to  the  west ;  it  was  surrounded  by  a 
bastioned  field-w^ork  of  a  quadrangular  shape.  Between 
those  two  points  was  a  battery  of  three  small  guns,  and 
in  front  stretched  a  line  of  embankment  with  ditches. 
There  were  patches  of  maguey,  which  screened  the  Mexi- 
can force,  numbering  altogether  more  than  four  thousand 
fighting  men,  besides  the  cavalry  corps  of  Alvarez,  which 
was  nearly  four  thousand  strong. 

Worth  prepared  for  a  vigorous  assault  on  the  Mexican 
centre,  to  be  followed  by  attacks  on  either  flank.  To  this 
end  he  assigned  Major  Wright  to  take  the  centre  with 
five  hundred  men,  Garland's  brigade  with  two  light  pieces 


BATTLE   or 

CHURUBUSCO 

AUGUST  20'"f  184-7 


I04  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

taking  position  on  the  right  to  threaten  the  Molino  and 
cut  off  support  from  Chapultepec.  Clarke's  brigade  under 
Mcintosh  with  three  hght  pieces  faced  the  Mexican  right, 
which  rested  on  the  Casa  Mata  ;  still  farther  to  the  left  a 
troop  of  cavalry  was  stationed  to  observe  Alvarez,  while 
Cadwalader's  division  stood  in  reserve  behind  the  centre. 
This  force  amounting  to  three  thousand  five  hundred 
men  advanced  during  the  night  and  took  position  along 
the  clear  and  gently  sloping  ground  in  front  of  Molino 
del  Rey,  where  they  waited  for  the  coming  day.  With 
its  first  faint  gleam  the  artillery  opens  fire  on  the  mill,  and 
the  whistling  of  balls  and  the  crashing  of  masonry  follow 
speedily.  Not  a  shot  comes  from  the  Mexican  lines,  and 
the  Americans  begin  to  believe  that  the  place  is  deserted. 
Wright's  storming-party  forms  and  rushes  towards  the 
point,  where  the  central  battery  was  supposed  to  be.  Its 
position  has  been  changed,  however,  and  as  they  come 
within  range  it  opens  upon  them  with  round  shot  and 
grape.  The  assailants  pause,  but  only  for  an  instant,  and 
then  rush  upon  it  with  the  cry  of  "  Forward  ! "  Once 
more  comes  a  shower  of  shot  that  mows  a  fearful  swath, 
disabling,  of  officers  alone,  eleven  out  of  seventeen.  But 
there  is  no  further  halt.  The  remnant  gains  the  batteries. 
There  is  a  brief  struggle,  hand-to-hand,  and  the  guns  are 
seized,  ready  to  be  turned  against  the  Mexicans. 

It  is  now  daylight.  Colonel  Echeagaraz  of  the  third 
light  infantry  observes  the  danger  ;  the  garrison  discharges 
a  well-aimed  volley  on  the  storming-party,  and  then  rally- 
ing hurls  back  the  assailants  in  disorder  and  reoccupies  the 
battery.  Worth  is  equally  prompt.  He  orders  forward 
three  companies  of  the  light  battalion  and  a  part  of  the 
reserve  to  support  and  rally  the  shattered  column.  Gar- 
land moves  from  under  the  plunging  fire  of  Chapultepec 
upon  the  Mexican  flank,  while  his  battery  pushes  forward 
to  enfilade  the  recaptured  point.  Once  more  the  Ameri- 
cans charge  simultaneously  from  centre  and  right,  under 


J   ,    .  5 
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I 


I06  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

a  raking  volley  of  balls  and  bullets,  especially  from  the 
roofs.  Their  numbers  and  impetus  prevail.  They  reach 
the  walls  and  begin  almost  unmolested  to  batter  the  gates. 
The  southern  gate  gives  way  and  some  men  spring  in, 
while  others  climb  the  roof  and  assist  in  gaining  the  north- 
western entrance.  The  Mexicans  stoutly  dispute  the  pas- 
sage, but  in  a  little  while  they  waver  and  fall  back,  closely 
pressed  by  the  Americans,  who  force  them  into  flight  or 
surrender.  But  for  some  time  the  result  of  the  battle  was 
doubtful,  as  the  operations  on  the  left  were  not  successful. 

Mcintosh's  brigade  and  Duncan's  battery  had  advanced 
to  within  six  hundred  yards  of  the  Mexican  lines  when  the 
fire  first  opened  on  the  storming-party.  Duncan  opened 
fire  with  his  guns  and  cannonaded  the  Mexican  troops, 
who  soon  ceased  their  fire  upon  his  immediate  front  and 
retired  into  Casa  Mata  and  surrounding  works.  Duncan 
w-as  then  ordered  to  cease  firing  and  Mcintosh's  brigade 
went  forward  for  the  assault.  The  Mexicans  opened  fire 
which  was  so  well  directed  that  the  advance  was  checked 
when  the  Americans  were  within  thirty  yards  of  the  walls 
of  Casa  Mata.  Mcintosh  fell  mortally  wounded,  Lieut. - 
Col.  Martin  Scott  who  succeeded  him  was  shot  dead.  Major 
Waite  was  disabled,  the  men  fell  by  platoons  and  com- 
panies, and  there  was  great  confusion.  The  remnants  of 
the  brigades  held  on  till  the  order  to  fall  back  and  rally  on 
the  battery  was  given.  Although  one  third  the  advan- 
cing force  had  fallen,  many  of  the  officers  refused  to  obey 
the  order,  as  they  did  not  know  from  whom  it  proceeded. 
The  retreat  consequently  became  greatly  disordered  and 
during  it  the  enemy  added  greatly  to  the  number  of  killed 
and  wounded. 

Instead  of  following  up  their  advantages  and  turning  the 
retreat  of  the  Americans  into  a  rout,  the  Mexicans  directed 
their  attention  to  the  flank  of  the  assailants  of  Molino  del 
Rey.  They  were  stopped  by  Cadwalader's  reserve  which 
came  up  just   in  time.     It  was  now  broad  daylight,  and 


CAPTURE   OF  THE    CITY  OF  MEXICO.  107 

Colonel  Duncan  had  observed  a  threatening  movement  on 
the  left.  Santa  Anna  had  ordered  Alvarez  to  move  down 
on  the  American  flank  with  his  whole  force.  With  a  cloud 
of  cavalry  in  advance,  Alvarez  came  on  and  was  met  by 
the  fire  of  Duncan's  battery,  which  opened  upon  the  Mexi- 
cans within  easy  range.  The  cavalry  halted,  and  after  a 
few  discharges  of  the  American  guns  had  ploughed  their 
ranks  they  were  thrown  into  confusion  and  retreated.  Ma- 
jor Sumner  came  up  with  his  dragoons  to  accelerate  the 
Mexican  retirement ;  before  the  dragoons  had  completed 
their  formation  for  a  charge  the  Mexicans  were  in  full  re- 
treat towards  the  Hacienda  Morales.  A  twenty-four- 
pounder  which  had  been  sent  up  by  Worth  continued  a 
smart  fire  upon  the  Mexicans  until  they  were  out  of  range. 
The  dragoons  held  their  position  on  the  left  till  the  end 
of  the  action.  As  soon  as  the  Mexicans  were  out  of  range 
Duncan's  guns  were  turned  upon  Casa  Mata  and  the 
enemy's  troops  around  it.  Under  their  fire  the  place  was 
soon  abandoned,  General  Perez  commencing  his  retreat  by 
the  right  as  the  fall  of  Molino  del  Rey  had  cut  off  his 
direct  communication  with  Chapultepec.  His  line  of  re- 
treat kept  him  under  the  fire  of  Duncan's  guns,  which  in- 
flicted a  severe  loss  upon  his  troops.  With  the  fall  of  the 
Casa  Mata  the  battle  of  Molino  del  Rey  was  ended  and 
the  Americans  were  in  full  possession  of  the  field. 

But  while  they  were  exulting  over  their  victory  a  Mex- 
ican column,  under  General  Barragan,  advanced  with  the 
evident  intention  of  retaking  the  Molino  ;  it  was  met  by 
a  heavy  fire  from  the  American  guns,  together  with  some 
that  had  been  captured  from  the  Mexicans,  and  very  soon 
the  Mexican  column  gave  way  and  fled  in  disorder.  A 
little  later  another  Mexican  force  advanced  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Casa  Mata,  but  this,  like  the  other  column,  was 
checked  by  the  American  artillery  and  a  heavy  volley 
from  the  infantry.  As  the  Mexicans  retreated,  the  Ameri- 
cans followed  them  several  hundred  yards  along  the  road. 


I08  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

Molino  del  Rey  was  untenable  under  the  plunging  fire 
of  Chapultepec,  and  General  Scott  sent  orders  for  the 
troops  to  fall  back.  Worth,  Pillow,  and  other  general 
oflficers  favored  an  assault  upon  Chapultepec  before  the 
Mexicans  had  recovered  from  their  disorder  consequent 
upon  the  events  of  the  day,  but  General  Scott  positively 
refused  to  permit  it.  Inside  of  the  Molino  were  found  a 
few  old  moulds  for  cannon,  but  nothing  to  indicate  that 
the  place  had  been  recently  used  as  a  cannon  foundry. 
In  the  Casa  Mata  a  large  quantity  of  ammunition  was 
found  ;  a  few  wagon  loads  were  removed,  and  orders  were 
given  to  destroy  the  rest.  The  force  of  the  explosion 
was  miscalculated  and  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  Cap- 
tain Armstrong  and  some  ten  or  twelve  soldiers  who  were 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  building.  The  battle  was  the  most 
hotly  contested  of  any  battle  of  the  war,  and  the  propor- 
tionate loss  of  officers  and  men  engaged  was  very  great. 
The  force  in  the  field  was  3,447,  of  which  number  787 
were  killed  or  wounded,  including  59  officers.  The  casu- 
alties included  nearly  one  third  the  officers  and  one  fourth 
the  rank  and  file,  a  conclusive  proof  that  officers  and 
men  did  their  whole  duty.  The  loss  to  the  enemy  was 
estimated  to  exceed  two  thousand ;  about  one  half  this 
number  were  prisoners,  and  the  remainder  killed  and 
wounded. 

Though  a  brilliant  feat  of  arms,  the  battle  of  Molino 
del  Rey  was  barren  of  results,  as  the  place  was  im- 
mediately abandoned  in  consequence  of  the  plunging  fire 
from  Chapultepec.  No  visible  advantage  was  gained,  and 
notwithstanding  the  loss  that  had  been  sustained  the  cap- 
ture of  the  capital  city  was  apparently  no  nearer  than 
before  the  battle.  It  was  the  first  battle  in  the  war  with- 
out immediate  advantages  resulting  from  it,  and  the  first 
where  the  field  gained  had  been  immediately  abandoned 
to  the  enemy.  The  event  caused  much  gloom  in  the 
American  camp,  and   many  were  the  fears  that  it  would 


CAPTURE    OF  THE    CITY   OF  MEXICO.  IO9 

encourage  tlie  Mexicans  to  make  a  more  sturdy  defence  of 
the  city  than  had  hitherto  been  expected. 

From  the  8th  to  the  12th  of  September  the  time  was 
passed  in  preparing  for  the  assault  of  Chapultepec  and  in 
reconnoitring  the  enemy's  position.  It  was  difficult  to 
decide  which  side  was  most  favorable  for  attack.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  officers  favored  the  southern  side  against  the 
comparatively  unknown  lines  of  the  west.  The  newly 
finished  defences,  however,  decided  Scott  for  the  western 
approaches  and  especially  for  the  hill  fortress,  as  he  be- 
lieved that  its  capture  would  materially  hasten  the  sur- 
render of  the  capital.  Gen.  Twiggs  was  accordingly 
ordered  to  begin  the  demonstration  against  the  east  with 
two  batteries,  while  Pillow  and  Quitman,  supported  by  a 
portion  of  Worth's  forces,  took  up  a  position  to  the  west 
and  south  of  Chapultepec,  and  erected  four  batteries  with 
which  to  open  fire  upon  the  castle  at  daybreak  on 
the   13th. 

Chapultepec  is  a  picturesque  hill  whose  fame  has  de- 
scended in  the  dim  traditions  of  the  Aztecs,  and  in  later 
days  has  been  consecrated  to  royalty.  The  northern  side 
is  inaccessibly  steep  ;  the  east  and  south  are  a  little  better, 
and  there  is  a  practicable  slope  only  on  the  western  side. 
At  a  height  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet  the  summit 
spreads  into  a  nearly  level  table  six  hundred  feet  in 
length,  and  surmounted  along  the  northern  edge  by 
a  heavy  but  not  ungraceful  building.  This  building  is 
the  citadel,  protected  by  ten  pieces  of  artiller}-.  The 
slopes  of  the  hill  were  provided  with  walls,  and  on  the 
west  with  ditches,  mines,  and  a  midway  redan.  The  ex- 
terior fringe  of  the  grove  at  the  western  fort  was  pro- 
tected by  an  embankment  with  a  ditch  and  redan  facing 
the  Molino  del  Rey. 

Pillow  took  possession  of  the  unoccupied  mill  at  dawn, 
on  the  1 2th,  under  an  ineffective  fusillade  from  the  grove, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  eastern  batteries  opened  fire.    A 


no  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

severe  cannonading  was  directed  on  the  garrison,  which 
silenced  several  of  their  guns.  A  fearful  fight  followed, 
which  did  not  cease  until  darkness  came  again.  Gen, 
Scott  ordered  an  assault  both  by  Pillow  and  Quitman, 
led  by  two  picked  storming-parties  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  men  each,  at  da\-break  on  the  13th. 

With  the  dawn,  the  cannonade  recommenced,  both 
from  the  batteries  planted  against  Chapultepec,  and  from 
Steptoe's  guns,  which  were  served  against  the  southern 
defences  of  the  city  in  order  to  divert  the  attention  of  the 
enemy  from  the  real  attack.  At  8  A.M.  the  firing  from 
the  former  ceased,  and  the  attack  commenced.  Quitman 
advanced  along  the  Tacubaya  road,  and  Pillow  from  the 
Molino  del  Rey,  which  he  had  occupied  the  previous 
evening.  Between  the  castle  and  the  Molino  del  Rey  there 
was  an  open  space,  and  then  a  grove,  densely  planted 
with  trees.  Mexican  sharp-shooters  had  been  posted 
among  the  trees,  and  they  were  further  protected  by  an 
intrenchment  on  the  edge  of  the  grove.  General  Pillow 
sent  Lieutenant-Colonel  Johnstone  with  a  party  of  rifle- 
men to  turn  this  position  by  a  flank  movement  ;  it  was 
handsomely  accomplished,  and  just  as  the  riflemen  broke 
through  the  redan,  Pillow,  with  the  main  body,  charged  it 
in  front  and  forced  the  Mexicans  away  from  it.  Having 
gained  possession  of  the  grove.  Pillow  advanced  to  the 
base  of  the  rock;  as  the  ^lexican  fire  from  the  batteries  of 
the  castle,  crashing  among  the  trees,  seemed  far  more  ter- 
rible than  it  really  was,  and  greatly  disturbed  the  troops 
of  Pillow's  column.  The  Mexicans  had  retired  to  a  re- 
doubt half-way  up  the  side  of  the  hill ;  the  riflemen  sprang 
up  from  rock  to  rock,  discharging  irregular  volleys  as  they 
pressed  on,  and  were  followed  by  Hooker,  Chase,  and 
others,  with  detachments  of  infantr)\ 

In  a  very  short  time  the  redoubt  was  gained,  the  gar- 
rison was  driven  up  the  hill  towards  the  castle,  and  Pil- 
low's  men    were    pressing   them    closely.     As    the  latter 


'T'Ti~^"i'iiii"!'i'li\\ 


112  DECISIVE  BATTIES  SINCE  WATERIOO. 

came  in  range  of  the  castle,  the  firing  was  very  severe. 
Colonel  Ransom,  of  the  Ninth,  was  killed,  and  General 
Pillow  was  wounded.  But  the  troops  advanced  steadily 
till  they  gained  the  crest  of  the  hill.  At  this  point  there 
was  some  delay,  as  the  scaling  ladders  had  not  arrived, 
but  during  the  delay  two  of  Quitman's  regiments  and 
Clarke's  brigade  reinforced  the  storming  party.  As  soon 
as  the  ladders  came,  the  men  rushed  forward  with  them, 
jumped  into  the  ditch,  and  planted  the  ladders  for  the 
assault  on  the  castle.  Lieutenant  Selden  was  the  first 
man  to  mount.  The  Mexicans  concentrated  all  their  en- 
ergies to  repel  this  final  attack.  A  furious  and  well- 
aimed  fire  dashed  the  foremost  of  the  stormers  into  the 
ditch,  killing  Lieutenants  Rogers  and  Smith,  and  clearing 
the  ladders  of  the  men  that  were  ascending.  A  new 
storming-party  advanced  and  mounted  the  ladders,  and, 
after  a  short  struggle,  Captain  Howard,  of  the  voltigeurs, 
gained  a  footing  on  the  parapet.  McKenzie  of  the  for- 
lorn hope  followed  him,  and  close  behind  came  a  swarm 
of  voltigeurs  and  infantry,  who,  with  loud  shouts  and 
cheers,  dashed  in  upon  the  garrison  with  the  bayonet. 

Almost  simultaneously  with  the  work  just  described, 
Johnstone,  of  the  voltigeurs,  who  had  led  a  small  party 
round  to  the  gate  of  the  castle,  broke  it  open,  and  forced 
an  entrance  in  the  face  of  a  furious  fire  from  the  southern 
walls.  The  two  parties  united,  and  then  followed  a  furious 
conflict  inside  the  building.  The  stormers  were  frenzied 
by  the  remembrance  of  the  murder  of  their  wounded 
comrades  at  Molino  del  Rey,  and  at  first  they  showed 
no  quarter.  The  Mexicans  were  bayoneted  or  shot 
without  any  heed  to  their  appeals  for  mercy.  Many 
flung  themselves  over  the  parapet  and  down  the  hill-side, 
and  were  dashed  to  death  against  the  rocks.  Others 
fought  with  the  fury  of  desperation,  expending  their  last 
breath  in  maledictions,  and  dying  in  the  act  of  aiming 
shots  or  blows  upon  their  assailants.     Streams  of  blood 


CAPTURE    OF  THE    CITY  OF  MEXICO.  II3 

flowed  through  the  doors  of  the  college,  and  every  room 
and  passage  was  the  scene  of  a  deadly  struggle.  After  a 
time  the  officers  succeeded  in  putting  an  end  to  the  con- 
flict, and  the  remaining  Mexicans  having  surrendered,  the 
stars  and  stripes  were  hoisted  over  the  castle  of  Chapulte- 
pec  by  Major  Seymour. 

While  this  was  going  on  General  Quitman  had  stormed 
the  batteries  on  the  causeway  to  the  east  of  the  castle, 
and  after  a  desperate  struggle,  in  which  Major  Twiggs, 
who  commanded  the  storming  party,  was  shot  dead  at  the 
head  of  his  men,  the  Mexicans  retreated  toward  the  city. 
General  Scott  joined  Quitman  in  person  and  ordered  a  sim- 
ultaneous advance  on  the  city,  along  the  two  roads  leading 
from  Chapultepec  to  San  Cosme  and  Belen  gates.  Worth 
was  to  command  the  attack  on  the  San  Cosme  gate,  and 
Quitman  the  attack  on  the  Belen  gate.  Both  were  pre- 
pared for  defence  by  barricades,  and  behind  these  barricades 
the  Mexicans  were  posted  in  strong  force.  Fortunately 
for  the  assailants  there  was  an  aqueduct,  supported  on 
arches  of  solid  masonry,  along  the  middle  of  each  causeway. 
Keeping  under  cover  of  these  arches,  and  springing  quick- 
ly from  one  to  another,  Smith's  rifles  and  the  South 
Carolina  regiment  managed  to  advance  close  to  the  first 
barricade  on  the  Belen  road  with  little  loss,  and  pour  in  a 
destructive  fire  on  the  Mexicans  defending  it.  A  flanking 
fire  from  Duncan's  guns  added  greatly  to  the  discomfiture 
of  the  Mexicans,  and  the  barricade  was  carried.  Without 
halting  more  than  to  take  breath,  Quitman  advanced  in 
the  same  manner  on  the  garita  San  Belen,  which  was 
held  by  General  Torres  with  a  strong  garrison.  Quit- 
man's men  stormed  the  garita,  though  met  by  a  heavy 
fire  of  grape  and  canister,  and  then  advanced  toward  the 
citadel. 

Just  as  they  did  so  General  Santa  Anna  rode  rapidly 
down  to  where  the  Mexicans  were  defending  themselves. 
Furiously  angry  at  the  success  of  the  Americans,  he  struck 


114  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

General  Torres  in  the  face,  threw  a  strong  force  of  infan- 
try into  the  houses  commanding  the  garita  and  the  road, 
ordered  the  batteries  in  the  citadel  to  open  fire,  brought 
up  some  additional  guns  to  the  Paseo,  and  so  decidedly 
enthused  his  followers  that  Quitman's  advance  was  com- 
pletely stopped.  A  terrific  storm  of  shot,  shell,  and  grape 
^vas  poured  on  the  garita,  where  Captain  Dunn  had  placed 
an  eight-pounder.  Twice  the  gunners  were  shot  down, 
but  their  places  were  promptly  taken  by  others.  Then 
Dunn  himself  fell,  and  immediately  afterward  Lieutenant 
Benjamin  and  his  first  sergeant  met  the  same  fate.  The 
riflemen  in  the  arches  repelled  sallies  of  the  Mexicans,  but 
Quitman's  position  was  one  of  much  danger.  He  main- 
tained it,  however,  until  night  caused  a  cessation  of  the 
fighting. 

Worth  in  the  meantime  had  advanced  in  the  same  way 
along  the  San  Cosme  causeway,  forcing  the  Mexicans 
from  one  barricade  to  another,  until  he  was  within  two 
hundred  and  fifty  yards  of  the  garita  of  San  Cosme. 
There  he  encountered  quite  as  severe  a  fire  as  that  which 
stopped  Quitman,  but  he  was  determined  to  carry  out 
Scott's  orders  to  take  the  garita.  Sending  Garland's 
brigade  to  the  right,  and  Clarke's  to  the  left,  he  ordered 
them  to  break  into  the  houses,  burst  through  the  walls, 
and  bore  their  way  to  the  flanks  of  the  garita.  The  plan 
had  succeeded  perfectly  at  Monterey  and  was  equally 
successful  in  this  instance.  Slowly  but  steadily  the  sappers 
pushed  along  from  house  to  house,  until  at  sunset  they 
had  reached  the  point  desired.  Then  Worth  ordered  the 
attack.  Lieutenant  Hunt  brought  up  a  light  gun  and 
fired  it  through  the  embrasure  of  the  enemy's  battery, 
with  its  muzzle  almost  against  that  of  the  Mexican  gun. 
The  infantry  at  the  same  moment  opened  a  furious  and 
quite  unexpected  fire  from  the  roofs  and  houses,  and 
McKenzie,  at  the  head  of  the  stormers,  dashed  at  the  bat- 
tery, and  carried  it  with  ver}'  little  loss.     The    Mexicans 


CAPTURE    OF  THE    CITY   OF  MEXICO.  II5 

considered  further  defence  useless,  and  fled  precipitately 
into  the  city. 

At  eight  o'clock  that  evening  a  council  of  war  was  held 
at  the  citadel  to  consider  the  situation.  Santa  Anna  demon- 
strated that  the  army  was  wholly  demoralized,  and  that 
the  citadel  would  soon  be  battered  down,  and  perhaps  the 
entire  city,  burying  in  its  ruins  thousands  of  non-combat- 
ing inhabitants.  Accordingly  the  council  decided  to  evacu- 
ate the  city.  The  cavalry,  four  thousand  strong,  was  at 
once  sent  away  through  the  northern  gate,  and  five  thou- 
sand infantry  followed  after  midnight.  The  militia  and  ir- 
regulars were  disbanded.  About  one  o'clock  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  14th  a  deputation  from  the  city  council  arrived 
at  General  Worth's  head-quarters  whence  they  were  sent 
to  General  Scott,  at  Tacubaya,  of  whom  they  demanded 
guaranties  for  life  and  property.  Scott  refused  to  bind 
himself  to  any  terms,  except  such  as  were  imposed  by  honor 
and  the  customs  of  civilized  warfare.  General  Worth  hast- 
ened to  affirm  this  position  by  advancing  at  daylight  to  the 
Alameda.  Quitman  received  a  white  flag  from  the  citadel, 
which  he  immediately  occupied,  and  then  marched  to  the 
central  square  and  hoisted  the  stars  and  stripes  above  the 
palace.  Scott  made  his  entry  during  the  forenoon.  The 
city  received  the  Americans  with  chilling  silence  and  many 
scowls  and  frowns.  A  shot  was  fired  at  General  Worth, 
and  was  followed  by  others;  immediately  the  artillery  was 
ordered  forward,  and  the  troops  charged  upon  the  crowds 
and  stormed  the  dwellings  whence  the  shots  came.  The 
confusion  grew  into  a  panic  and  many  families  fled  from  the 
city.  The  firing  continued  throughout  the  day  and  Scott 
threatened  to  level  the  city.  The  Mexicans  surrendered 
the  next  morning. 

The  loss  of  the  Americans  in  the  valley  campaign  was 
something  more  than  two  thousand  seven  hundred 
killed  and  wounded.  This  heavy  reduction  of  a  force  of 
eleven  thousand  intlicatcs  a  stout  resistance  on  the  part  of 


Il6  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

the  Mexicans,  whose  loss  exceeded  seven  thousand  alto, 
gether.  Their  failure  to  repel  the  invaders  was  largely  due 
to  bad  generalship,  w^hich  permitted  the  unopposed  ad- 
vance of  the  Americans  across  the  mountains  and  around 
Chalco  Lake,  and  depended  too  much  on  the  expectation 
that  the  enemy  would  fall  into  traps  and  go  exactly  into 
the  positions  the  Mexicans  desired.  Another  thing  to  be 
considered  is  their  defective  organization,  the  rawness  of 
the  troops,  and  the  inferior  arms  with  which  they  fought. 
These  circumstances  add  to  the  glory  of  the  defence  at 
Churubusco,  Molino  del  Rey,  and  Chapultepec,  which 
were  certainly  well  defended. 

After  the  capture  of  the  capital  city  there  were  no  mili- 
tary operations  of  any  consequence.  General  Scott  asked 
for  reinforcements,  w^hich  were  sent  forward  slowly,  and 
there  was  some  difficulty  in  maintaining  communication 
along  the  road  to  Vera  Cruz  in  consequence  of  the  activity 
of  guerillas.  Negotiations  for  peace  were  pushed,  and  on  the 
20th  of  February,  1848,  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo 
was  signed.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty  the  territories  of 
New  Mexico  and  Upper  California  were  ceded  to  the 
United  States,  and  Mexico  relinquished  all  claim  to  Texas, 
or  the  country  east  of  the  Rio  Grande.  In  consideration 
of  the  vast  area  of  land  given  up  to  the  United  States,  the 
latter  country  was  to  pay  fifteen  millions  of  dollars  to 
Mexico,  and  in  addition  was  to  pay  the  claims  of  Ameri- 
can citizens  upon  Mexico,  amou"nting  to  five  millions  more. 
There  were  some  minor  stipulations  concerning  grants  of 
lands  by  Mexico  within  the  ceded  territories  and  Texas, 
and  others  relating  to  protection  against  Indians  on  the 
boundar}',  but  they  did  not  interfere  with  the  general 
terms  of  the  treaty.  Soon  after  the  ratification  of  the 
treaty  the  American  troops  were  withdrawn  from  Mexico, 
and  the  stars  and  stripes  were  hoisted  over  the  newly  ac- 
quired regions,  which  have  since  become  an  important 
part  of  the  United  States. 


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CHAPTER   VIII. 

BATTLE    OF    GUJERAT — 1 849, 

One  of  the  bravest  and  most  powerful  nationalities  of 
the  many  races  and  nations  of  India,  during  the  early  half 
of  the  present  century,  was  that  of  the  Sikhs.  Like  most 
other  Oriental  nations,  they  owe  their  origin  to  religious 
belief,  the  word  "  Sikh "  signifying  "  Disciple."  The 
founder  of  their  faith  was  a  Hindoo  named  Nanek,  who 
was  born  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  of 
the  Christian  era.  His  father  intended  him  for  a  mer- 
chant, but  he  felt  an  irresistible  longing  for  religious 
studies,  which  resulted  in  an  uncontrollable  dislike  to  the 
Hindoo,  the  Moslem,  and  the  Bhuddist  forms  of  worship. 
He  taught  the  unity  of  God,  the  equality  of  all  in  the 
sight  of  heaven,  and  inculcated  universal  kindness,  char- 
ity, and  forbearance  among  men.  He  rejected  the  dis- 
tinctions of  caste,  the  burning  of  widows,  and  all  other 
peculiar  features  of  the  Hindoo  religion,  and  at  the  same 
time  rejected  the  sensual  paradise  and  devout  observances 
of  the  followers  of  Mohammed.  The  progress  of  the  new 
faith  was  steady,  though  in  its  early  history  it  met  with 
much  opposition  ;  for  four  centuries  the  Sikhs  contended 
with  the  enemies  that  surrounded  them,  and  gradually 
increased  their  power  over  the  neighboring  states.  They 
were  emphatically  a  soldier  race,  and  in  the  early  part  of 
the  present  century,  under  the  leadership  of  Runjeet 
Singh,  "  The  Lion  of  the  Punjaub  "  the  Sikh  Confederacy 

"7 


Il8  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

included  a  population  of  seven  million,  with  an  army  of 
eighty  thousand  men,  possessing  three  hundred  guns. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  this  army  was  of  the 
ordinary  character  of  Oriental  forces  in  general.  On  the 
contrary,  it  had  been  carefully  drilled  by  French  and 
Italian  ofBcers,  so  that  it  was  in  a  high  state  of  efificiency 
even  when  judged  by  the  European  standard.  In  addition 
to  this  regular  force  the  whole  country  contained  a  war- 
rior people,  and  with  its  entire  strength  called  out,  it  could 
put  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million  fighting  men  in  the 
field.  The  Sikhs  are  tall,  robust,  brave,  and  full  of  mili- 
tary ardor  ;  they  are  the  best  native  soldiers  in  Asia,  and 
would  be  more  than  a  match  for  any  other  native  troops 
which  the  cradle  of  the  world  could  bring  to  oppose  them. 
In  the  cavalry  and  artillery  arms  they  are  particularly 
distinguished,  but  this  remark  should  not  lead  the  reader 
to  infer  that  they  are  inefifiicient  as  infantry.  Their  coun- 
try is. .known  as  the  Punjaub  (Land  of  the  Five  Rivers), 
and  it  has  been  celebrated  through  many  centuries  for  its 
richness  and  fertility.  The  rivers  from  which  it  takes  its 
name  are  the  Indus,  Jhelum,  Ravee,  Chenab,  and  Sutlej. 
These  rivers  with  their  tributaries  are  available  for  pur- 
poses of  irrigation  over  a  wide  extent  of  country,  whose 
capital  is  Lahore,  and  chief  city  Umritzur.  In  the  time  of 
Runjeet  -Singh,  the  province  of  Lahore  contained  four 
million  inhabitants,  Mooltan  one  million  four  hundred 
thousand  ;  Cashmere,  six  hundred  thousand  ;  and  por- 
tions of  Afghanistan  which  that  fierce  warrior  had  sub- 
dued had  a  population  of  at  least  one  million. 

The  British  government  in  India,  realized  that  it  had 
a  dangerous  neighbor  on  the  north,  but  during  the  life- 
time of  Runjeet  Singh  there  was  no  disturbance,  and  the 
British  were  on  the  most  friendly  terms  with  "  The  Lion  of 
the  Punjaub."  His  army  clamored  to  be  led  against  the 
English,  but  the  clamor  was  totally   disregarded  by  the 


119 


BATTLE    OF   GUJERAT.  121 

ruler  who  dreaded  the  power  of  the  British  arms,  and  knew 
tliat  his  best  way  to  conquest  was  one  that  would  not  in- 
terfere with  the  Europeans.  In  1838  he  began  negotia- 
tions for  a  closer  alliance  with  the  British,  but  died  before 
they  were  concluded.  His  death  was  followed  by  a  weak 
and  distracted  rule  which  bordered  upon  anarchy  ;  the 
demand  of  the  Sikhs  to  be  led  against  the  English  became 
steadily  more  and  more  fierce,  and  at  length  led  to  open 
warfare. 

The  Sikhs  in  1845  invaded  British  territory,  and  thus 
brought  on  what  is  known  in  history  as  the  first  Sikh 
war.  They  crossed  the  Sutlej,  which  had  been  estab- 
lished by  treaty  as  the  boundary,  and  on  the  14th  of 
December  attacked  the  British  at  Ferozepore.  The  place 
contained  seven  thousand  five  hundred  men,  and  the 
Sikh  army  numbered  nearly  sixty  thousand.  Had  the 
Sikhs  made  an  immediate  attack,  Ferozepore  must  have 
fallen,  but  they  contented  themselves  with  intrenching 
within  a  safe  distance  of  the  fort  and  detaching  twenty 
thousand  men  to  meet  the  British  column  that  was  advan- 
cing to  reinforce  the  garrison  of  Ferozepore.  It  was  well 
for  the  British  that  Runjeet  Singh  was  in  his  grave  and 
not  commanding  the  invading  army. 

The  column  of  twenty  thousand  Sikhs  was  encountered 
and  defeated  by  fourteen  thousand  British  troops  at 
Moodkee.  The  Sikhs  lost  heavily  in  men,  and  among  the 
spoils  of  battle  were  seventeen  guns  which  they  were 
forced  to  abandon.  The  British  army  remained  in  camp 
for  two  days,  until  joined  by  reinforcements  from  the 
south,  and  then  advanced  upon  the  Sikh  camp,  having 
previously  arranged  for  the  division  in  Ferozepore  to  join 
at  a  point  opposite  the  Sikh  camp.  The  battle  that  fol- 
lowed was  favorable  to  the  British,  but  it  was  desperately 
contested  by  the  Sikhs,  and  for  a  long  time  the  result  was 
doubtful.     The  Sikh  army  retreated  and  recrossed  the 


122  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

Sutlej.  When  the  retreat  began,  the  British  artillery  ammu- 
nition was  exhausted,  and  that  of  the  infantry  very  nearly 
so.  The  British  cavalry  and  horse  artillery  were  actually 
moving  to  seek  the  shelter  of  the  intrenched  camp  at 
Ferozepore  ;  the  Sikhs  supposed  it  was  a  movement  to 
seize  the  fords  of  the  river,  and  cut  off  their  retreat,  and 
hence  came  the  panic  which  gave  the  battle  to  the  British 
at  a  moment  when  all  hope  seemed  lost. 

For  some  time  following  this  battle  there  were  no  active 
hostilities,  but  the  interval  was  occupied  by  the  British  in 
bringing  up  all  available  forces  till  their  strength  exceeded 
thirty  thousand,  with  abundant  supplies  of  ammunition 
and  stores.  Late  in  January,  1846,  occurred  the  battle  of 
Aliwal,  and  on  the  loth  of  February,  the  battle  of  Sobraon, 
where  the  Sikhs  had  an  intrenched  camp  of  thirty  thou- 
sand men  with  one  hundred  and  seventy  guns.  The  camp 
was  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  connected  by  a  bridge. 
The  British  attacked  the  camp  on  the  south  side,  and  were 
desperately  resisted  by  the  Sikhs,  who  inflicted  a  loss  of 
nearly  three  thousand  men  on  their  assailants.  The  bat- 
tle resulted  in  a  British  victory,  and  a  loss  to  the  Sikhs  of 
ten  thousand  men  and  sixty-seven  pieces  of  artillery, 
mostly  of  heavy  calibre.  The  principal  loss  to  the  Sikhs 
was  made  during  an  attempt  to  retreat  over  the  bridge, 
which  was  choked  with  people  under  the  fire  of  the  British 
guns.  The  river  had  risen  seven  inches  during  the  night 
preceding  the  battle,  and  while  it  was  easily  fordable  be- 
fore the  rising,  thousands  were  drowned  in  the  attempt  to 
cross  it  when  swollen. 

The  battle  of  Sobraon  was  followed  by  an  appeal  on 
the  part  of  the  Sikhs  for  peace,  which  was  granted  after 
the  customary  negotiations.  By  the  treaty  the  whole  of 
the  territory  between  the  rivers  Beas  and  Sutlej  was  given 
up  to  the  British,  and  the  Sikhs  paid  a  crore  and  a  half  of 
rupees  (i^  1,500,000)  as  an  indemnity  for  the  expenses  of 


BATTLE   OF  GUJERAT.  I23 

the  war.  All  the  guns  which  had  been  pointed  at  the 
British  were  given  up,  and  the  army  was  to  be  reorganized 
on  the  system  that  prevailed  in  the  time  of  Runjeet 
Singh,  and  on  a  scale  to  be  arranged  in  connection  with 
the  British  government.  The  moderation  of  the  British 
was  a  surprise  to  the  Sikhs,  who  had  expected  the  con- 
querors to  take  all  they  possessed,  and  leave  them  with- 
out a  vestige  of  a  government  or  any  thing  else.  In 
common  with  most  Orientals,  they  judged  this  moderation 
to  proceed  from  fear,  and  therefore  were  encouraged  to 
renew  the  struggle  without  great  delay.  In  1847  there 
were  several  manifestations  of  turbulence,  and  in  1848  it 
was  plainly  evident  that  war  could  not  be  long  delayed. 
The  British  made  preparations  accordingly,  and  when  the 
shock  came  they  were  far  better  prepared  for  it  than  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  first  Sikh  war. 

On  the  18th  of  April  two  English  officials  in  Mooltan 
were  set  upon  by  a  body  of  armed  Sikhs  and  severely 
wounded  ;  they  were  carried  for  safety  to  a  small  fort  out- 
side the  citadel,  but  the  Sikh  garrison  let  in  their  assailants 
and  the  two  men  were  murdered.  There  was  then  a  general 
revolt,  and  the  whole  fortress  of  Mooltan,  as  well  as  the 
small  fort  where  the  murder  took  place,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  insurgents.  This  act  precipitated  the  war, 
as  the  English  took  immediate  steps  to  avenge  the 
murder  and  accompanying  insurrection.  Several  small 
battles  took  place,  the  rising  among  the  Sikhs  spread  with 
great  rapidity,  they  openly  set  up  their  standards,  and 
declared  their  determination  for  independence,  and  in  a 
few  weeks  they  had  a  force  of  thirty  thousand  men  ready 
for  battle.  The  British  concentrated  their  forces  on  the 
banks  of  the  Chenab,  and  on  the  21st  November  Lord 
Gough  took  command  in  person  of  an  army  of  twenty 
thousand  men.  He  immediately  took  the  offensive  by 
advancing  on  the  Sikh  camp,  the  orders  being  given  to  be 


124  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WAIERLOO. 

ready  for  marching  on  the  morning  of  the  22d.  The  at- 
tack resulted  in  the  repulse  of  the  British  with  considera- 
ble loss,  including  three  officers  of  high  rank. 

Both  armies  remained  quiet  for  some  time,  each  receiv- 
ing reinforcements  and  preparing  for  another  passage  of 
arms.  In  January,  1849,  Lord  Gough  determined  to  at- 
tack the  Sikhs,  and  on  the  12th  of  that  month  was  fought 
the  battle  of  Chillianwallah,  which  was  practically  a  drawn 
battle,  as  neither  side  had  any  thing  to  boast  of  in  conse- 
quence of  it.  The  English  were  well  advanced  towards 
victory,  when  a  sudden  panic,  one  of  those  unaccountable 
occurrences  in  battles  in  all  ages  of  the  world's  history, 
caused  a  confusion  in  the  ranks;  it  led  to  the  loss  of  all 
the  artillery  which  had  been  wrested  from  the  Sikhs 
earlier  in  the  day,  and,  in  addition,  four  guns  were  taken 
from  the  British.  On  the  British  side  there  was  a  loss 
of  two  thousand  two  hundred  and  sixty-nine  in  killed 
and  wounded ;  the  English  assert  that  the  Sikhs  lost 
three  thousand  killed  and  four  thousand  wounded,  but 
this  assertion  is  open  to  question.  The  result  was  so  un- 
satisfactory that  Lord  Gough  was  removed  and  replaced 
by  Sir  Charles  Napier,  but  in  the  meantime  he  terminated 
the  war  with  the  battle  of  Gujerat,  which  is  now  to  be 
considered. 

The  siege  of  Mooltan  was  ended  by  the  surrender  of  its 
garrison,  and  the  besieging  force  immediately  moved  to 
join  the  army  of  Lord  Gough.  With  this  and  other  ad- 
ditions to  his  strength  he  had  twenty-five  thousand  men 
eager  for  battle  ;  he  was  also  stronger  in  artillery  than 
were  the  Sikhs,  as  he  had  one  hundred  pieces  to  oppose 
to  fifty-nine.  The  Sikhs,  who  were  commanded  by  Shere 
Singh,  had  been  recently  reinforced  until  their  number 
reached  sixty  thousand,  but  notwithstanding  this  numer- 
ical disparity.  Lord  Gough  determined  to  attack  them  in 
the  position  they  had  chosen.    Colonel  Malleson  puts  the 


BATTLE   OF  GUJERAT.  1 25 

actual  fighting  strength  of  the  Sikhs  at  thirty-four  thou- 
sand, and  says  they  were  encamped  as  follows: 

Their  centre  was  formed  back  of  the  town  of  Kalrd  ; 
their  left  on  a  small  stream  called  Katelah,  which  runs 
into  the  Chenab;  and  the  Dwdrah,  another  small  stream 
of  some  width  but  nearly  dry,  protected  their  right.  Not 
far  from  the  Khoree  Pass,  in  the  rear,  was  the  city  of 
Gujerat.  On  a  thorough  examination  of  the  position  by 
Lord  Gough  and  his  staff,  it  was  seen  that  it  lacked 
strength.  Now^here  did  the  right  wing  of  the  Sikh  army 
offer  serious  resistance  to  men  or  artillery.  The  left  wing 
on  the  Katelah  was  even  weaker  than  the  rest  of  the 
position  as  it  rested  ''en  Vair'' ;  in  fact,  on  no  side  was 
there  any  serious  protection  against  assault.  It  was  de- 
cided, therefore,  to  strike  at  the  left  and  centre  of  the 
Sikh  position,  and  to  force  them  back  on  their  right. 

To  act  upon  this  plan  an  advance  of  the  heavy  artillery, 
formed  in  his  centre,  was  ordered  by  Lord  Gough  ;  the 
right  wing,  made  up  of  the  divisions  of  Gilbert  and  Whish, 
supported  by  the  larger  part  of  the  field  artillery,  was  also 
to  move  forward.  After  these  should  have  doubled  in 
the  left  and  centre  of  the  Sikh  army,  upon  its  right  Camp- 
bell's and  Dundas'  divisions,  forming  the  British  left  wing, 
were  to  come  up  and  end  the  work.  Then  the  cavalry 
reserve  were  to  come  in  to  make  the  disaster  to  the  Sikhs 
irretrievable.  The  British  line  was  to  advance  to  the 
enemy's  position  by  following  the  bank  of  the  Dwdrah. 
The  British  artillery,  being  much  superior  to  the  Sikh 
forces,  both  in  the  number  of  guns  and  their  calibre,  Lord 
Gough  intended  to  delay  the  advance  of  his  infantr}-  to 
close  quarters  until  the  guns  had  been  freely  used.  The 
British  officers  felt  that  a  Pyrrhaean  victory,  as  the  hard- 
fought  battle  of  Chillianwallah  had  proved  only  five  weeks 
before,  could  not  be  afTordcd.  The  Sikhs  as  well  as  the 
British  wished  for  a  decisive  battle  and  were  entirely  con- 
fident of  victory. 


126  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Although  Lord  Gough  was  certainly  an  able  leader,  he 
had  not  that  coolness  in  action  which  a  Clive  or  a  Well- 
esley  displayed  under  similar  circumstances.  On  the  con- 
trary, a  battle  so  excited  him  that  his  well-formed  plans 
were  lost,  and  his  sole  aim  was  to  attack  with  his  infantry, 
disregarding  entirely  the  service  of  cavalry  and  artillery. 

At  half-past  seven  in  the  morning  of  that  remarkable 
day  of  February  21,  1849,  the  British  army  was  ready  to 
advance  to  battle.  The  morning  was  bright,  and  the 
advancing  columns  made  very  little  dust.  The  camp  of 
the  Sikhs  was  sharply  outlined  against  the  snow-capped 
ranges  of  the  Himalaya  behind  Gujerat.  At  the  call  of 
"  Forward,  march  !  "  sounding  swiftly  down  the  line,  the 
British  advanced  to  meet  their  enemy.  Shortly  after 
passing  the  town  of  Harivvald,  a  halt  of  a  few  moments 
was  made  to  re-form  the  lines  and  close  the  ranks.  The 
Sikhs,  seeing  the  British  resting,  opened  with  their  artil- 
lery, but  their  fire  did  not  reach  the  enemy's  lines,  for 
the  distance  was  fully  two  thousand  yards,  or  something 
more  than  a  mile.  The  heavy  guns  of  the  British  were 
used  in  return,  but  the  range  was  too  great  to  be  effective. 
It  was  necessary  to  approach  more  closely,  and  again  the 
British  advanced. 

Suddenly,  out  rode  the  British  cavalr)%  dashing  into  the 
very  muzzles  of  the  Sikh  guns  in  the  face  of  a  fierce  storm 
of  shot  and  shell.  The  horse  artillery  now  followed  them, 
unlimbering  within  short  range,  and  discharging  their 
volleys  with  great  rapidity  and  with  telling  force  into  the 
Sikh  lines.  The  effect  of  this  artillery  charge  was  so 
great  that  the  Sikhs,  unable  to  withstand  the  English  fire, 
retired  to  occupy  a  position  farther  back,  beyond  the 
villages  of  Barra  Kalra  and  Chota  Kalra.  General  Gough 
ordered  the  storming  of  the  villages  by  the  infantry,  and 
away  started  the  two  British  divisions  for  the  work,  but 
the  stubborn  opposition   of  the  Sikhs  made  the  attempt 


THE    BATTLE    OF 

aU  J  C  RAT 

FEB.ZrF849 

Scale  ofMilRS 


V^ 


127 


128  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

almost  useless,  and  nearly  resulted  in  a  repulse.  The 
Sikhs  met  the  columns  of  the  advancing  British  front  to 
front,  and  inch  by  inch  the  British  infantry  made  good 
its  ground,  until  the  first  line  gave  way  to  fall  back  on 
the  second.  The  British  lost  three  hundred  men  in 
carrying  the  town  of  Barra  Kalra  ;  and  in  the  storming 
of  Chota  Kalra,  one  half  of  the  first  brigade  was  killed  or 
disabled,  without  counting  the  great  loss  of  the  horse 
artillery  in  aiding  the  assault.  One  troop  was  nearly 
annihilated. 

Meanwhile  Colonels  Campbell  and  Douglas,  command- 
ing the  left  wing,  kept  carefully  in  line  with  the  advance 
movement  of  the  right,  but  in  a  manner  much  more 
cautious.  They  ordered  their  men  to  lie  upon  the  ground 
when  halted,  and  advancing  by  slow  degrees  they  reached 
a  point  from  which  they  could  command  the  head  of  the 
DwArah  creek.  In  a  few  minutes  the  creek  was  cleared 
of  the  Sikh  infantry,  and  the  ground  was  occupied  by 
Campbell,  the  loss  of  men  being  only  trifling.  This  was 
the  natural  ending  of  the  first  part  of  the  battle.  The 
advance  of  the  British  had  been  made  with  success  along 
the  entire  line.  On  the  right  two  important  positions  had 
been  won,  while  the  enemy  had  been  driven  from  the 
nullah,  or  dry  rivulet,  on  which  they  were  resting,  by  the 
operations  of  the  left  wing. 

Lord  Gough  was  confidently  believing  that  the  battle 
had  been  won,  but  such  was  far  from  being  the  case.  The 
Sikhs,  alert  to  observe  a  weak  point  or  a  false  move  of 
the  enemy,  quickly  ascertained  that  the  English,  in  swing- 
ing their  left  upon  the  right  wing  of  the  Sikhs  to  gain 
that  ground,  had  left  a  great  gap  between  their  left  and 
the  centre!  To  rush  in  and  make  a  passage  through  this 
gap  was  their  opportunity,  for  their  line  of  retreat  was 
already  seriously  threatened.  The  Afghan  cavalry  had 
not  only  given  way  before  a  brave  charge  of  the  British, 


BATTLE    OF  GUJEKAJ'.  1 29 

but  there  was  a  brigade  moving  toward  the  Sikh  rear.  If 
the  Sikhs  could  make  their  way  through  the  British  cen- 
tre, the  day  might  yet  be  turned  in  their  favor.  It  was  a 
desperate  chance,  but  the  only  one.  Forming  their  men 
in  line,  the  Sikh  leaders  marched  them  forward  for  this 
forlorn  attack — a  brave  stroke  for  success.  The  fate  of 
the  day  was  hanging  in  the  balance. 

The  probability  as  well  as  the  danger  of  this  movement 
had  been  weighed  by  the  English  commander.  He  had 
ordered  up  two  companies  of  horse  artillery,  but  as  they 
went  into  position  it  was  discovered  that  they  were  out 
of  ammunition.  Time  was  lost  in  sending  to  the  rear  for 
a  fresh  supply.  The  silence  of  the  British  artillery  gave 
courage  to  the  Sikhs,  and  had  it  not  happened  that  the 
ofificer  nearest  the  gap  was  a  ready  leader,  a  cool-headed, 
watchful  soldier,  and  a  man  of  great  resources,  India 
might  have  been  wrested  from  English  hands  by  this  one 
movement.  Colonel  Campbell  perceived  the  great  peril 
of  the  situation,  and  promptly  directed  the  fire  of  a  part 
of  his  artillery  on  the  advancing  Sikhs.  The  latter  at 
once  realized  that  the  advance  could  not  be  continued 
except  at  the  risk  of  their  flank  being  exposed  to  the  full 
fire  of  Campbell's  artillery.  This  was  more  than  they 
could  stand,  and  they  retreated  in  sore  dismay,  protected 
by  their  cavalry.  They  did  so  not  a  moment  too  soon, 
for  the  English  right  wing  was  already  hemming  them  in. 
No  alternative  remained  but  to  leave  the  field  to  the 
British. 

By  one  o'clock  Lord  Gough  had  routed  the  Sikh  army, 
crowding  it  in  large  and  disorganized  masses  upon  a  line 
of  retreat  which,  if  rightly  followed  up,  gave  no  chance  to 
the  discouraged  fugitives  of  support  or  escape.  And  it 
was  followed  up  with  great  vigor.  Cavalry  and  horse  ar- 
tillery were  despatched  in  pursuit,  and  followed  as  closely 
as  possible  by  the  wearied  infantry.     During  all  the  rest 


130  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

of  the  day  the  defeated  army  suffered  all  the  terrors  of 
almost  continuous  attacks.  It  could  not  retain  its  cohe- 
sion under  the  strain,  and  the  country  for  miles  around 
was  filled  with  scattered  and  fleeing  Sikhs,  and  covered 
wath  guns,  cattle,  carts,  tents,  and  standards  left  in  the 
haste  of  a  wild  flight.  At  last  night  came  on  and  the 
pursuit  was  ended  twelve  miles  beyond  Gujerat.  The 
victory  of  the  British  was  complete. 

Fifty-seven  guns,  thirty-two  standards,  and  the  whole 
Sikh  camp  with  ammunition  and  baggage  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  British.  The  loss  to  the  British  was  ninety- 
two  killed  and  six  hundred  and  eighty-two  wounded  ;  that 
of  the  Sikhs  was  estimated  at  five  or  ten  times  the  British 
loss,  in  addition  to  the  destruction  and  dispersal  of  an 
army  of  sixty  thousand  men. 

Early  next  morning  Lord  Gough  despatched  a  force  of 
fifteen  thousand  men,  consisting  of  horse  and  foot  artil- 
lery, some  infantry,  and  all  the  cavalry,  to  intercept  the 
flight  of  the  Sikhs  through  the  Khoree  Pass  towards  the 
Jhelum.  But  the  Sikhs,  to  the  number  of  nine  thousand, 
with  ten  guns,  had  already  got  through  the  pass  ;  the 
British  followed,  and  when  they  reached  the  Jhelum  Shere 
Singh  made  proposals  for  surrender.  He  was  informed 
that  nothing  short  of  unconditional  surrender  would  be 
accepted,  and  accordingly  he  laid  down  his  arms  and  his 
men  became  prisoners  of  war.  The  surrender  occurred  on 
the  1 2th  of  March,  near  Horrmuck.  Nearly  ten  thousand 
soldiers  gave  themselves  up,  the  rest  of  those  who  sur- 
vived the  battle  having  fled  to  their  homes.  Forty-one 
guns  were  surrendered,  including  those  taken  by  the  Sikhs 
Jt  Chillianwallah.  The  British  authorities  gave  each  man 
a  rupee  for  his  expenses  to  his  home,  and  the  cavalry  were 
allowed  to  retain  their  horses,  which  were  their  own  prop- 
erty ;  but  all  the  arms,  ammunition,  standards,  and  all 
other  materials  of  war  were  retained  by  the. British. 


BATTI.E    OF   CUJERA7\  I3I 

The  repeated  acts  of  insubordination  of  the  Sikh  sol- 
diery and  the  evident  and  serious  risks  to  which  they  had 
exposed  the  British  power  in  India,  determined  the  gov- 
ernor-general to  put  a  final  end  to  them.  On  the  29th  of 
March  a  proclamation  was  issued  which  recounted  how 
the  long  peace  and  alliance  which  had  been  in  force  be- 
tween the  two  governments  had  been  twice  broken  through 
the  treachery  of  the  Sikh  troops.  Consequently,  it  had 
become  necessary,  the  proclamation  stated,  to  declare 
"  the  kingdom  of  the  Punjaub  at  an  end,  and  that  all  the 
territories  of  Maharajah  Dhuleep  Singh  are  now  and 
henceforth  a  portion  of  the  British  empire  in  India." 
The  proclamation  promised  due  honor  to  the  Maharajah 
and  the  few  chiefs  who  had  not  engaged  in  hostilities 
against  the  British,  and  guaranteed  to  all  the  people, 
whether  Mussulman,  Hindoo,  or  Sikh,  the  free  exercise  of 
their  own  religion,  but  forbade  any  one  to  interfere  with 
that  of  another. 

The  Sikhs  accepted  the  inevitable,  and  submitted  grace- 
fully to  the  superior  power  of  the  British.  The  event 
made  less  excitement  in  Hindostan  than  in  England, 
where  the  greatness  of  the  addition  to  the  British  empire 
in  India  by  the  conquest  of  the  Punjaub  was  appreciated 
at  its  full  value.  Since  that  time  the  Sikh  soldiers  have 
proved  themselves  the  best  and  most  faithful  of  all  the 
Asiatics  serving  under  the  English  banners  in  India.  Dur- 
ing the  mutiny  of  1857,  they  remained  to  a  man  loyal,  and 
their  splendid  fighting  qualities  undoubtedly  saved  to 
Great  Britain  her  possessions  in  the  Indian  peninsula,  or  at 
any  rate  preserved  her  from  any  serious  reverses. 

At  present,  the  population  of  the  Punjaub  is  not  far 
from  twenty-three  million,  additions  having  been  made  to 
the  original  territory.  The  country  is  one  of  the  richest 
and  most  prosperous  of  all  the  Indian  possessions  of  Great 
Britain,  and  covers  an  area  of  nearly  two  hundred  thou- 


132  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

sand  square  miles.  In  the  north  the  whole  surface  is  trav- 
ersed by  spurs  from  the  Himalayas  enclosing  deep  val- 
leys, while  in  the  south  the  country  is  unbroken  by  any 
important  elevation  with  the  exception  of  the  Salt  Range 
of  mountains,  about  two  thousand  feet  high,  between  the 
Indus  and  the  Jhelum.  Since  its  annexation  by  the  Brit- 
ish the  Punjaub  has  progressed  more  rapidly  than  in  any 
similar  period  of  its  history,  and  its  agricultural  and  manu- 
facturing products  are  known  throughout  the  civilized 
world. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

CAPTURE    OF   THE    MALAKOFF  AND    REDAN,    AND    FALL 
OF   SEBASTOPOL — 1 85 5. 

The  Crimea  was  conquered  by  Russia  in  the  time  of 
Catharine  the  Great,  and  immediately  after  the  conquest 
the  Russians  began  to  fortify  the  harbor  of  Sebastopol 
(Sacred  City).  When  they  went  there  they  found  a  mis- 
erable Tartar  village  called  Akhtiar ;  they  created  one  of 
the  finest  naval  and  military  posts  in  the  world,  and  built 
a  city  with  broad  streets  and  handsome  quays  and  docks. 
In  1850  it  had  a  population  of  about  fifty  thousand,  which 
included  many  soldiers  and  marines,  together  with  work- 
men employed  in  the  government  establishments. 

In  that  year  there  was  a  dispute  between  France  and 
Russia  relative  to  the  custody  of  the  holy  places  in  Pales- 
tine ;  there  had  been  a  contention  concerning  this  matter 
for  several  centuries,  in  which  sometimes  the  Greek  Church 
and  sometimes  the  Latin  had  the  advantage.  In  1850,  at 
the  suggestion  of  Turkey,  a  mixed  commission  was  ap- 
pointed to  consider  the  dispute  upon  it. 

The  Porte,  as  the  Turkish  government  is  officially  desig- 
nated, issued  in  March,  1852,  a  decree  that  the  Greek 
Church  should  be  confirmed  in  the  rights  it  formerly  held, 
and  that  the  Latins  could  not  claim  exclusive  possession 
of  any  of  the  holy  places.  It  allowed  them  to  have  a  key 
to  the  Church  of  the  Nativity  at  Bethlehem,  and  to  cer- 
tain other  buildings  of  minor  importance. 

France  accepted  the  decision,  though  she  did  not  like 
it ;  Russia  continued  to   demand   that   the   Latin   monks 

133 


w^ 


PLANofSEB/ 

showincthk  i 

AND  THE 

POSITIONS  OFTHE  FRE 
AKMIES 


J= 


Scale  or  m 


^ 


9^^^^^^M 

'^^M 

^^^^^^^^^ 

CHAPTER  IX. 

CAPTURE    OF   THE   MALAKOFF  AND    REDAN,    AND   FALL 
OF   SEBASTOPOL — I  85  5. 

The  Crimea  was  conquered  by  Russia  in  the  time  of 
Catharine  the  Great,  and  immediately  after  the  conquest 
the  Russians  began  to  fortify  the  harbor  of  Sebastopol 
(Sacred  City).  When  they  went  there  they  found  a  mis- 
erable Tartar  village  called  Akhtiar ;  they  created  one  of 
the  finest  naval  and  military  posts  in  the  world,  and  built 
a  city  with  broad  streets  and  handsome  quays  and  docks. 
In  1850  it  had  a  population  of  about  fifty  thousand,  which 
included  many  soldiers  and  marines,  together  with  work- 
men employed  in  the  government  establishments. 

In  that  year  there  was  a  dispute  between  France  and 
Russia  relative  to  the  custody  of  the  holy  places  in  Pales- 
tine ;  there  had  been  a  contention  concerning  this  matter 
for  several  centuries,  in  which  sometimes  the  Greek  Church 
and  sometimes  the  Latin  had  the  advantage.  In  1850,  at 
the  suggestion  of  Turkey,  a  mixed  commission  was  ap- 
pointed to  consider  the  dispute  upon  it. 

The  Porte,  as  the  Turkish  government  is  ofificially  desig- 
nated, issued  in  March,  1852,  a  decree  that  the  Greek 
Church  should  be  confirmed  in  the  rights  it  formerly  held, 
and  that  the  Latins  could  not  claim  exclusive  possession 
of  any  of  the  holy  places.  It  allowed  them  to  have  a  key 
to  the  Church  of  the  Nativity  at  Bethlehem,  and  to  cer- 
tain other  buildings  of  minor  importance. 

France  accepted  the  decision,  though  she  did  not  like 
it  ;  Russia  continued  to   demand   that   the   Latin   monks 

133 


134  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

should  be  deprived  of  their  keys,  and  finally  insisted  that 
the  Czar  should  have  a  protectorate  over  the  Greek  Chris- 
tians in  Turke}'.  The  Porte  said  such  a  protectorate  would 
interfere  with  its  own  authority,  and  refused  the  demand  ; 
thereupon  the  Russian  Minister  left  Constantinople  on 
the  2 1  St  of  May,  1853. 

This  may  be  considered  the  beginning  of  the  war  be- 
tween Russia  and  Turkey,  though  there  was  no  fighting 
for  several  months. 

France  came  to  the  aid  of  Turkey  ;  England  came  to 
the  aid  of  Turkey  and  France.  Representatives  of  Eng- 
land, France,  Austria,  and  Prussia  met  at  Vienna  and 
agreed  upon  a  note  which  Russia  accepted  ;  Turkey  de- 
manded modifications  which  Russia  refused  ;  Turkey  de- 
clared war  against  Russia  on  the  5th  of  October,  and 
Russia  declared  war  against  Turkey  on  the  ist  of  Novem- 
ber. 

A  Turkish  fleet  of  twelve  ships  was  lying  at  Sinope,  a 
port  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea.  On  the 
30th  of  November  the  Russians  sent  a  fleet  of  eleven  ships 
from  Sebastopol  which  destroyed  the  Turkish  fleet,  all 
except  one  ship  that  carried  the  news  to  Constantinople. 
Then  the  allied  fleets  of  the  French  and  English  entered 
the  Black  Sea,  and  the  war  began  in  dead  earnest.  For 
some  months  it  was  confined  to  the  Danubian  principali- 
ties and  to  the  Baltic  Sea.  On  the  14th  of  September, 
1854,  the  allied  army  landed  at  Eupatoria,  in  the  Crimea, 
and  the  extent  of  their  preparations  will  be  understood 
when  it  is  known  that  forty  thousand  men,  with  a  large 
number  of  horses  and  a  full  equipment  of  artillery,  were 
put  on  shore  in  a  single  day ! 

On  the  20th  of  September  the  battle  of  the  Alma  was 
fought  by  fifty-seven  thousand  English,  French,  and 
Turkish  troops,  against  fifty  thousand  Russians.  The 
battle  began  at  noon,  and  four  hours  later  the  Russians 
were  defeated  and  in  full  retreat.     The  Russians  lost  five 


136  DECISIVE   BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

thousand  men,  and  the  AlUes  about  three  thousand  four 
hundred.  The  AlHes  might  have  marched  into  Sebastopol 
with  very  little  resistance,  but  their  commanders  were  un- 
certain as  to  the  number  of  troops  defending  the  city, 
and  hesitated  to  make  the  attempt. 

On  the  17th  of  October  the  siege  began.  A  grand  at- 
tack was  made  by  the  Allies,  but  was  unsuccessful,  and 
eight  days  later  the  famous  charge  of  the  Light  Brigade 
at  Balaklava  was  made.  On  the  5th  of  November  the 
Russians  attacked  the  Allies  at  Inkerman,  and  were  re- 
pulsed. The  battle  of  Inkerman  was  fought  in  a  fog  by 
forty  thousand  Russians  against  fifteen  thousand  French 
and  English.  The  latter  had  the  advantage  of  position 
and  weapons.  The  Allies  frankly  credited  the  Russian 
troops  with  the  greatest  bravery  in  returning  repeatedly 
to  the  attack  as  their  battalions  were  mowed  down  by  the 
steady  fire  of  the  defenders. 

During  the  winter  the  siege  was  pushed,  and  the  allied 
army  suffered  greatly  from  cholera,  cold,  and  sickness. 
The  siege  continued  during  spring  and  summer ;  the  Allies 
made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  the  Malakoff  and  Redan 
forts  on  the  i8tli  of  June,  1855,  and  all  through  the  long 
months  there  were  daily  conflicts  between  the  opposing 
armies. 

The  Russians  sunk  several  ships  of  their  fleet  in  the 
harbor  of  Sebastopol  soon  after  the  battle  of  the  Alma, 
but  retained  others  for  possible  future  use.  On  the  8th 
of  September  the  French  captured  the  Malakoff  fort,  the 
English  at  the  same  time  making  an  unsuccessful  attack 
on  the  Redan.  The  fall  of  these  forts  was  followed  by 
the  evacuation  of  Sebastopol,  the  objective  point  of  the 
war,  and  was  therefore  the  decisive  event  of  the  campaign. 

An  incident  of  the  siege,  though  forming  no  part  of  its 
military  history,  has  been  so  admirably  told  by  Bayard 
Taylor,  that  it  is  worthy  of  repetition  in  this  narrative. 
It  is  as  follows : 


CAPTURE    OF  THE   MALAKOFF  AND  REDAN.       1 37 

THE  SONG  OF  THE  CAMP. 

"Give  us  a  song  !  "  the  soldiers  cried, 

The  outer  trenches  guarding, 
When  the  heated  guns  of  the  camps  allied 
Grew  weary  of  bombarding. 

The  dark  Redan,  in  silent  scoff. 

Lay,  grim  and  threatening  under  ; 
And  the  tawny  mound  of  the  Malakoff 

No  longer  belched  its  thunder. 

There  was  a  pause.      The  guardsman  said  : 

"  We  storm  the  forts  to-morrow  ; 
Sing  while  we  may,  another  day 

Will  bring  enough  of  sorrow." 

They  lay  along  the  battery's  side, 

Below  the  smoking  cannon  : 
Brave  hearts  from  Severn  and  from  Clyde, 

And  from  the  hanks  of  Shannon. 

They  sang  of  love,  and  not  of  fame  ; 

Forgot  was  Britain's  glorj-  : 
Each  heart  recalled  a  different  name, 

But  all  sang  "  Annie  Laurie." 

Voice  after  voice  caught  up  tbe  song. 

Until  its  tender  passion 
Rose  like  an  anthem,  rich  and  strong, — 

Their  battle-eve  confession. 

Dear  girl,  her  name  he  dared  not  speak^ 

But,  as  the  song  grew  louder. 
Something  upon  the  soldier's  cheek 

Washed  off  the  stains  of  powder. 

Beyond  the  dar'.ening  ocean  burned 

The  bloody  sunset's  embers. 
While  the  Crimean  valleys  learned 

How  English  lilood  remembers. 

And  once  again  a  fire  of  hell 

Rained  on  the  Russian  quarters. 
With  scream  of  shot,  and  burst  of  shell, 

And  bellowing  of  the  mortars. 


138  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO, 

And  Irish  Nora's  eyes  are  dim 

For  a  singer,  dumb  and  gory  ; 
And  English  Mary  mourns  for  him 

Who  sang  of  "  Annie  Laurie." 

Sleep,  soldiers  !   still  in  honored  rest 

Your  truth  and  valor  wearing  : 
The  bravest  are  the  tenderest, — 

The  loving  are  the  daring. 

The  following  account  of  the  sixth  and  last  bombard- 
ment of  the  defences  of  Sebastopol  was  written  by  an 
eye-witness  within  the  British  lines.  The  bombardment 
began  on  the  morning  of  September  5th,  three  days 
before  the  Malakoff  and  Redan  were  assaulted. 

There  were  wreaths  of  clouds  and  vapors  hanging  over 
the  valleys,  and  on  the  lines  of  buildings  inside  the  defences 
that  have  kept  the  armies  watching  so  long  in  front  of 
Sebastopol.  The  waters  of  the  bay  were  as  smooth  as  an 
inland  lake  and  reflected  the  hills  at  their  borders,  and  the 
vessels  that  lay  at  anchor.  Out  on  the  Black  Sea  the  French 
and  English  fleets  were  lying  quite  idle  between  Kasatch  and 
Constantine.  ^ 

Looking  from  Cathcart's  Hill,  the  view  included  the  defences 
of  the  Quarantine  and  the  Flagstaff  batteries,  together  with  the 
trenches  and  approaches  made  by  the  French,  quite  up  to  where 
their  parallels  joined  on  the  English  left  attack  in  a  ravine  at 
the  end  of  the  Dockyard  Creek.  One  standing  at  this  point 
could  take  in  at  a  single  glance  the  lines  of  the  Flagstaff  bat- 
teries, the  ruined  dwellings  in  the  suburbs,  or  rather  the  sites 
of  the  dwellings,  which  had  formerly  been  long  streets,  but  had 
been  destroyed  by  the  fire  of  the  French  batteries.  The  great 
mass  of  the  ruins  was  enclosed  between  the  sea-wall,  and  the 
Flagstaff  batteries,  and  farther  beyond  could  be  seen  the  city 
itself,  rising  apparently  in  terraces  along  the  hill-sides,  display- 
ing fine  dwellings,  public  edifices  of  red  or  white  sandstone, 
and  magnificent  churches,  the  whole  liberally  sprinkled  with 
gardens,  and  with  rows  of  trees  growing  in  the  promenades. 


CAPTURE   OF  THE   MALAKOFF  AND   REDAN.       1 39 

These  fine  buildings  were  closely  surrounded  in  many  instances 
by  little  houses  covered  with  whitewash,  occupied  by  the 
soldiers  of  the  garrison  or  the  poorer  class  of  the  civilian  resi- 
dents of  the  city.  The  hill  presenting  this  view  of  the  city  is 
at  the  rear  of  the  Flagstaff  battery,  and  some  two  hundred  feet 
above  it,  the  face  toward  the  Dockyard  Creek,  and  is  quite 
steep  ;  it  then  turns  toward  the  roadstead  and  descends  quite 
rapidly  to  its  level  at  the  rear  of  the  southern  range  of  forts. 
From  our  point  of  view  we  could  not  see  the  houses  on  this 
face  of  the  hill,  but  those  along  the  eastern  face,  or  the  slope 
toward  the  Dockyard  Creek,  were  fully  visible.  There  was  a 
slobodka,  or  poor  suburb,  at  the  base  of  the  hill,  and  from  this 
the  houses  stood  in  terraces,  with  winding  roads  and  ranges  of 
steps  leading  quite  up  to  the  brow  of  the  hill.  Looking  care- 
fully, one  could  see  that  the  bombardment  was  having  a  severe 
effect  on  these  buildings.  The  roof  of  a  church,  decorated  with 
many  small  turrets  and  pinnacles  at  the  angles  had  been  struck 
by  the  shells  and  quite  broken  in  ;  some  of  the  best  of  the  pri- 
A'ate  residences  were  completely  blown  up,  while  others  had 
their  walls  so  cracked  that  there  was  no  need  of  windows  to 
admit  the  daylight  ;  shot  holes  were  apparent  in  many  others, 
and  in  some  instances  the  light  showed  through  them  from  side 
to  side.  Columns,  pillars,  and  doors  were  broken  down  or 
shattered  near  the  Flagstaff  works.  In  the  rubbish  of  the 
slobodka  there  were  several  batteries  which  were  in  good  con- 
dition, and  although  the  Allies  had  thrown  their  fire  severely 
upon  them,  they  seemed  to  be  in  thoroughly  good  order.  They 
formed  part  of  the  outlying  works  of  the  second  line  of  the 
defences.  Not  all  of  them  could  be  seen  from  Cathcart's  hill, 
but  the  line  of  their  position  could  be  traced  with  comparative 
ease. 

All  at  once,  quite  near  the  Flagstaff  battery,  between  bas- 
tions 7  and  8,  we  saw  three  jets  of  flame  curling  up,  followed 
by  three  pillars  of  dirt  and  dust  fully  one  hundred  feet  into 
the  air,  and  receiving  a  ruddy  tint  from  the  bright  rays  of  the 
morning  sun.  We  had  been  looking  for  these  explosions,  but 
the  moment  they  came  they  took  us  by  surprise.  They  were 
caused  by  the   French,  who   had   fired  three   mines,  partly   to 


I40  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

destroy  the  counterscarp,  and  partly  to  give  a  signal  for  the 
opening  of  the  cannonade.  A  moment  after,  all  the  way  from 
the  Dockyard  Creek  to  the  shore  of  the  sea  there  was  a  burst 
of  fire  which  seemed  to  run  along  as  though  a  fuse  had  been 
fired.  This  stream  of  fire  was  fully  three  miles  long  ;  it  ran 
from  battery  to  battery,  and  was  followed  instantly  by  great 
clouds  of  white  smoke.  It  resembled  more  than  any  thing  else 
the  white  clouds  rising  from  Vesuvius  or  Etna  just  previous  to 
an  eruption  of  those  famous  mountains.  The  smoke  in  the 
still  morning  air  covered  the  whole  lines  of  the  French  trenches 
as  though  a  great  cloud  had  fallen  upon  them,  while  the  slight 
breeze  of  the  morning  whirled  them  in  jets  and  bunches,  much 
as  you  see  a  cloud  on  the  summit  of  a  mountain  driven  about 
in  a  thunder-storm.  The  wind  was  blowing  from  our  direction, 
and  consequently  the  sound  of  the  tremendous  explosions  was 
much  less  than  we  had  expected.  For  the  reason  that  it  was 
so  slight  in  the  British  camp,  it  must  have  been  corresponding- 
ly terrible  in  the  city.  On  the  Russian  lines,  toward  which  the 
storm  of  shot  and  shell  was  directed,  there  were  jets  and  clouds 
of  earth  and  dust  arising  from  the  faces  of  the  earthworks, 
and  from  the  parapets  that  in  some  instances  seemed  to  be 
swept  almost  away,  and  also  from  the  mass  of  ruined  houses 
just  behind  the  Russian  batteries.  The  front  distance  cov- 
ered by  this  shower  of  iron  was  nearly  four  miles  in  extent. 
It  swept  the  entire  length  of  the  Russian  lines,  and  reached 
into  the  very  heart  of  the  city.  It  is  probable  that  few  vol- 
leys so  immensely  powerful,  and  at  the  same  time  so  sud- 
denly discharged,  were  ever  known  before  since  artillery  was 
invented. 

The  suddenness  of  the  shock,  together  with  its  magnitude, 
seemed  for  a  time  to  have  paralyzed  the  defenders  of  Sebasto- 
pol.  Their  batteries  were  not  sufficiently  manned  to  enable 
them  to  reply  with  any  vigor  to  such  a  tremendous  fire,  and 
the  French  prevented  in  great  measure  any  movement  to  man 
the  batteries  by  the  energy  and  celerity  with  which  they  con- 
tinued the  iron  hail  which  began  so  suddenly.  They  had  more 
than  two  hundred  pieces  of  artillery  in  position,  all  of  heavy 
calibre,  and  worked  with  the  greatest  possible  rapidity.     The 


l>LAN  OF  SEBASTOPOL 

•HOWINC  THI  LIHd  or  ATTACK  ON  TRK 

MALAKOFF  AND  REDAN 


/^ 


141 


142  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

great  cloud  of  smoke  rolling  from  these  batteries  was  turned 
towards  Sebastopol  and  seemed  to  envelop  the  entire  city. 
Notwithstanding  the  veil  which  was  thrown  over  the  place,  the 
cannonade  continued  with  great  fury.  After  a  time  there  was 
a  slight  lull,  but  it  broke  out  again  almost  immediately.  Some- 
times all  these  long  lines  of  artillery  seemed  to  be  discharged 
almost  simultaneously,  then  only  a  few  guns  at  a  time,  then  a 
few  moments  of  silence,  then  another  burst,  and  so  on  like  the 
cadences  of  the  movements  of  the  waves  of  the  ocean  on  a 
sandy  beach.  Watching  with  our  glasses,  we  could  see  walls 
of  stone  go  down  as  if  they  were  made  of  sawdust.  Clouds  of 
dust  rose  every  moment  from  the  front  of  the  earthworks. 
The  Russian  cannon  were  dismounted,  and  we  could  see  every- 
where along  the  lines  that  the  French  fire  was  telling  with 
terrific  effect. 

The  Russians  were  compelled  to  keep  to  their  bomb  proofs, 
so  that  scarcely  a  man  was  visible  along  their  entire  line.  For 
a  little  while  it  seemed  as  if  the  French  would  be  able  to  sweep 
away  the  whole  place  without  encountering  any  resistance,  but 
after  a  time  the  Russian  gunners  began  to  reply  ;  but  they 
fired  very  slowly,  taking  accurate  aim,  as  though  ammunition 
was  scarce  and  they  did  not  intend  to  waste  a  single  shot. 
The  fire  of  the  Russians  seemed  to  stimulate  the  French  rather 
than  to  discourage  them,  as  their  volleys  were  given  faster  than 
before  the  Russian  fire  commenced.  Some  of  their  guns  were 
aimed  at  the  line  of  Russian  defences  and  others  directly  at 
the  city.  Meantime  the  English  naval  brigade  and  siege  train 
were  working  away  at  the  face  of  the  Redan  and  the  Malakoff 
in  the  same  quiet  manner  in  which  they  had  been  working  for 
days.  They  gave  material  aid  to  the  French  by  keeping  up  a 
steady  fire  of  shells  on  the  batteries  between  the  Redan  and 
the  Dockyard  Creek.  Occasionally  the  mortars  in  the  rest  of 
the  English  batteries  threw  their  ten-  and  thirteen-inch  shells 
behind  the  Russian  lines  and  accompanied  these  shells  with 
shot  from  the  heavy  siege  guns. 

The  French  batteries  were  far  superior  in  the  numbei"  of 
their  guns  to  the  English,  as  the  following  table  taken  on  the 
5th  of  the  month  will  show  : 


CAPTURE   OF  THE  MALAKOFF  AND  REDAN.       1 43 


ENGLISH    BATTERIES. 


13-inch  mortars 
lo-inch       " 

8-inch 
Cohorns 

8-inch  guns 
lo-inch     " 
32-pounders 
68-pounders 


Total  English 

FRENCH    BATTERIES. 

Left  Attack — Against  Flagstaff  Bastion 
Central 
Quarantine" 

Right  Attack — Against  Malakoff,  etc.     . 
Total  French 


GUNS 

34 

27 
10 
20 
37 

7 
61 

6 

202 


GUNS 
129 

134 
83 

346 


627 


The  French  continued  their  fire  for  nearly  three  hours  with- 
out cessation.  Then  they  stopped  almost  as  suddenly  as  they 
began,  in  order  to  give  the  guns  a  chance  to  cool.  The  Rus- 
sians instantly  took  advantage  of  the  lull  in  the  fire  by  coming 
out  to  repair  damages.  They  emptied  bags  of  sand  and  earth 
on  the  outside  of  their  parapets,  rolled  out  gabions,  and  did 
other  work  usual  in  the  reparation  of  artillery  fire.  Their 
artillerymen  also  took  advantage  of  the  lull  by  opening  fire  on 
the  batteries  of  the  naval  brigade  in  the  English  lines,  and  de- 
livered their  shot  with  such  precision  as  to  cause  the  English 
in  that  locality  a  good  deal  of  trouble.  About  10  o'clock  the 
French  renewed  their  fire  quite  as  rapidly  as  at  first,  and  they 
preceded  it  by  exploding  some  fougasses.  With  the  same  ob- 
ject as  before,  this  fire  was  maintained  until  midnight,  and 
succeeded  in  dismounting  so  many  of  the  Russian  guns  that 
they  had  only  a  few  remaining  with  which  they  could  reply. 
They  were  sending  men  and  carts  with  great  rapidity  back  and 


144  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

forth  across  the  bridge  in  the  harbor,  and  about  9  o'clock  a 
large  force  of  infantry  crossed  the  bridge,  evidently  preparing 
to  resist  the  assault  which  was  expected,  and  at  the  same  time 
there  was  a  movement  toward  Inkerman  on  the  part  of  the 
army  encamped  in  that  locality. 

When  the  French  firing  began  in  the  morning,  the  working 
parties  which  crossed  daily  from  the  south  to  the  north  side 
were  evidently  ordered  back  again,  with  the  expectation  that  an 
assault  would  be  made  during  the  course  of  the  forenoon. 
From  noon  until  five  p.m.,  there  was  not  much  firing  ;  then 
the  French  broke  out  again  as  vigorously  as  ever  and  contin- 
ued the  cannonade  until  half  past  seven,  when  darkness  made 
it  impossible  to  take  accurate  aim.  Then  there  was  a  brief  lull. 
Later  in  the  evening,  along  the  whole  line,  French  and  Eng- 
lish, all  the  siege  guns  and  mortars  opened  again  and  continued 
the  fire  throughout  the  night.  Of  course,  accuracy  of  aim 
was  out  of  the  question  during  a  night  bombardment.  The 
object  was  to  prevent  the  Russians  repairing  their  defences, 
and  we  knew  that  a  shot  fired  in  their  direction  would  fall 
somewhere  within  the  Russian  lines,  even  though  it  might  not 
hit  a  particular  earthwork  or  make  a  hole  through  any  spe- 
cified building. 

Orders  were  issued  for  all  the  batteries  to  begin  an  active 
bombardment  as  soon  as  daylight  permitted,  each  gun  being 
limited  to  fifty  rounds.  The  whole  line  of  the  batteries,  from 
Inkerman  to  the  Quarantine,  opened  the  cannonade  at  5.30 
A.M.  This  was  continued  for  three  hours  ;  then  there  was  a 
cessation  until  ten  o'clock  ;  then  the  firing  was  renewed  until 
noon  ;  then  came  a  cessation  until  five  o'clock,  and  there  was 
another  lull  from  half  past  six  until  seven.  It  must  be  under- 
stood that  some  firing  was  maintained  during  these  lulls  ;  had 
it  been  otherwise  the  silence  would  have  been  almost  painful. 

When  the  sun  went  down  on  Thursday  night  the  bombardment 
began  again  and  was  kept  up  without  cessation  until  an  hour 
before  daylight  on  Friday  morning.  Musketry  fire  was  added 
to  that  of  the  artillery,  the  orders  being  to  keep  up  a  steady 
fusillade  along  the  Russian  front,  about  two  hundred  thousand 
rounds  of  cartridges  being  used  every  night  after  the  bombard- 


CAPTURE   OF  THE  MALAKOFF  AND  REDAN.    *I45 

ment  began.  The  cannonade  was  resumed  on  Friday  as 
before.  The  Inkerman  batteries  replied  vigorously,  but 
along  the  Russian  centre  there  was  very  little  response.  The 
wind  blew  from  the  north  and  great  clouds  of  dust  were  blown 
from  the  town  along  with  the  smoke  of  the  batteries  so  that  it 
wjs  not  easy  to  ascertain  the  effect  of  the  fire.  Occasionally 
the  clouds  lifted,  and  whenever  we  obtained  glimpses  of  the 
city  or  the  defences  it  was  evident  that  the  result  was  severe. 

A  council  of  generals  was  held  at  the  English  head-quarters 
at  noon,  General  Pelissier  and  General  Delia  Marmora  being 
present.  As  soon  as  the  council  had  broken  up,  the  surgeons 
were  ordered  to  clear  the  hospitals  of  patients  and  get  ready 
for  the  reception  of  the  wounded.  Those  in  the  hospitals  who 
could  bear  the  transportation  were  sent  as  fast  as  possible  to 
Balaklava  or  to  the  field  hospital  in  the  rear  of  the  camp. 

The  cannonade  was  continued  on  the  seventh  in  about  the 
same  manner,  and  we  could  see  hour  by  hour  that  the  city  was 
terribly  shattered  by  the  bombardment.  The  greater  part  of 
the  houses  within  range  of  our  guns  were  either  in  complete 
ruin  or  so  injured  that  they  were  uninhabitable.  There  was 
great  activity  along  the  bridge  crossing  the  harbor.  It  was 
crowded  at  all  hours  of  the  day  with  men  and  carts  passing  in 
both  directions,  but  generally  from  south  to  north.  In  the 
evening  there  was  a  bright  light,  owing  to  the  head  of  the 
dockyard  shears  being  on  fire,  whether  by  accident  or  design 
no  one  could  say.  A  large  ship  was  set  on  fire  and  completely 
burnt,  and  we  could  see  that  a  steamer  was  towing  a  line-of- 
battle  ship  to  the  dockyard,  where  it  would  be  out  of  range  of 
our  fire. 

There  was  another  council  of  the  generals  at  noon,  and  after 
the  council  was  over  it  was  whispered  through  the  camp  that  the 
defences  would  be  assaulted  at  noon  on  the  eighth,  after  a  vig- 
orous cannonade  and  bombardment.  Noon  was  selected 
because  it  was  known  that  the  Russians  usually  took  a  rest  at 
that  hour.  There  was  an  explosion  some  time  in  the  night 
behind  the  Redan.  It  alarmed  the  camp  for  a  short  time  and 
then  was  quite  forgotten.  During  the  night  of  the  seventh 
there  was  a  sudden  change  in  the  weather.     Up  to  that  time  it 


146'  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

had  been  fine,  but  on  the  morning  of  the  eighth  it  was  ex- 
tremely cold  ;  there  was  a  strong,  sharp  wind  blowing  from 
the  north  side  of  Sebastopol  ;  the  bright  sun  was  gone,  and 
in  its  place  there  rose  above  us  a  canopy  of  a  dull  leaden 
gray. 

The  arrangement  was  that  the  French  should  assault  the 
Malakoff  at  mid-day,  and  in  case  their  attack  was  successful 
the  English  were  to  storm  the  Redan  immediately.  A  diver- 
sion was  to  be  made  on  the  English  left  by  strong  columns  of 
French  who  were  to  threaten  the  line  of  the  Flagstaff  and  Quar- 
antine batteries.  The  cavalry  sentries  were  posted  soon  after 
eight  o'clock;  the  Light  Division  and  also  the  Second  were  sent 
into  the  trenches  and  out  into  the  advance  parallels  as  quietly 
as  could  be  done. 

About  that  time  General  Simpson  and  his  staff  took  their 
position  in  the  second  parallel  of  the  Greenhill  battery,  which 
had  been  designated  by  the  engineer  officers.  Sir  Henry 
Jones  was  too  ill  to  walk  and  was  carried  on  a  litter  into  the 
trenches,  where  he  remained  until  the  attack  was  ended.  Gen- 
eral Simpson  and  Sir  Richard  Airey,  the  quartermaster-general, 
remained  with  him.  The  Duke  of  Newcastle  took  a  position 
at  Cathcart's  Hill  during  the  forenoon,  and  later  went  to  the 
picket  house  near  the  Woronzoff  road. 

Exactly  five  minutes  before  our  watches  indicated  noon  the 
French  swarmed  out  of  their  trenches  where  they  were  nearest 
the  Malakoff,  went  up  the  face  of  the  fort  and  through  the 
embrasures  almost  in  a  moment.  Their  advance  trenches 
were  only  seven  metres  from  the  fort  and  consequently  only  a 
few  moments  at  the  pace  they  ran  were  required  to  carry  them 
to  their  destination.  They  drifted  out,  battalion  following 
closely  on  battalion,  and  in  a  minute  or  so  after  the  head  of 
their  column  came  out  of  the  ditch  their  flag  was  flying  over 
the  Korniloff  bastion  o^  the  fort.  They  took  the  Russians 
completely  by  surprise.  Very  few  of  them  were  in  the  Mala- 
koff at  the  time.  There  was  a  very  slight  fire  of  musketry  for 
a  few  minutes  but  the  Russians  were  not  long  in  recovering 
from  their  astonishment  and  very  soon  fell  vigorously  on  their 
assailants.       From  a  little  past  noon  until  nightfall  the  French 


147 


148  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

were  kept  quite  actively  engaged  in  repulsing  the  attempts  of 
the  Russians  to  regain  the  position.  The  slaughter  of  the 
Russians  was  very  great,  and  when  night  came  the  Russian 
commander  withdrew  his  forces  very  skilfully  and  prepared  to 
evacuate  the  position. 

The  French  attack  on  the  left  was  a  failure  and  caused  a 
heavy  loss  to  the  assailants.  As  soon  as  the  French  flag  was 
hoisted  on  the  parapet  of  the  Ma/akoff,  rockets  were  sent  up 
from  the  English  advance  trenche*  as  a  signal  for  the  English 
assault  on  the  Redan.  The  French  had  mcide  their  assault  on 
the  Malakoff  with  four  divisions  of  their  Second  Corps,  two 
divisions  forming  as  storming  columns.  The  English  attacked 
the  Redan  with  only  two  divisions,  one  being  held  in  reserve 
and  practically  not  engaged.  It  was  only  a  few  minutes  after 
12  o'clock  when  the  order  was  given  for  the  advance  upon  the 
Redan.  The  troops  were  obliged  to  cross  a  distance  of  230 
yards  from  the  advance  trenches  to  the  parapet  of  the 
Redan.  Their  loss  was  heavy,  especially  in  officers.  The 
fire  was  more  deadly  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  advance 
from  the  trenches  than  when  the  assailants  were  near  the 
fort.  The  abatis  in  front  of  the  fort  had  been  torn  to  pieces 
by  the  artillery  fire,  so  that  it  really  formed  no  obstruction  to 
the  advance  of  the  men.  The  light  division  directed  its 
movements  toward  the  salient  angle  of  the  Redan.  There 
was  little  opposition  to  the  troops  as  they  crossed  the  ditch 
and  scrambled  up  the  face  of  the  fort,  as  the  Russians  had  re- 
tired to  their  traverses  and  were  making  ready  to  receive  the 
English  as  soon  as  they  reached  the  top  of  the  work. 

The  storming  columns  of  the  Second  Division  followed 
closely  after  the  Light  Division,  and  as  they  approached  the 
fort  made  a  slight  bend  to  the  right  flank  of  the  Light  Divi- 
sion so  as  to  attack  the  face  of  the  Redan  simultaneously. 
The  first  embrasure  they  reached  was  on  fire  ;  at  the  next 
they  climbed  the  parapet  without  opposition  and  entered  the 
embrasure  which  had  been  left  undefended  by  the  Russians. 
Inside  the  face  of  the  Redan  there  was  an  inner  parapet  which 
was  intended  to  protect  the  artillerymen  while  at  work  from 
the  fragments  of  shell  bursting  inside  the  fortification.     There 


CAPTURE   OF  THE  M A  LA  K  OFF  AND  REDAN.       1 49 

were  several  openings  through  this  inner  parapet  so  that  the 
men  could  easily  seek  shelter  whenever  circumstances  justified 
their  so  doing.  As  the  storming,  column  entered  the  Redan 
from  the  embrasures  the  Russians  retreated  behind  the  breast- 
work, and  from  it  they  poured  a  deadly  fire  upon  the  storming 
party.  Instead  of  advancing,  the  stormers  halted  and  returned 
the  fire  of  the  Russians  without  seeking  to  dislodge  them  by 
the  use  of  the  bayonet. 

The  whole  inside  of  the  Redan  seemed  to  swarm  with  Rus- 
sians, who  kept  up  a  persistent  fire  upon  the  English.  The 
Russians  came  in  great  force  from  the  barracks  behind  the 
Redan,  and  while  the  number  of  the  English  was  rapidly 
diminishing  that  of  the  Russians  steadily  increased.  The 
English  officers  sought  to  encourage  the  men  to  advance,  but 
were  unable  to  do  so.  It  had  been  rumored  through  the  camp 
that  the  Redan  was  everywhere  mined,  and  that  if  once  occu- 
pied by  the  English  it  would  be  blown  up.  A  panic  seemed 
to  seize  some  of  the  men,  while  others  acted  bravely  and 
rushed  forward  to  obey  the  orders  of  their  officers.  They 
were  not  sufficiently  strong  in  numbers  to  perform  the  work, 
and  as  fast  as  they  advanced  they  were  swept  down  by  the 
Russian  fire.  The  supports  which  came  up  from  the  advanced 
trenches  reached  the  Redan  in  disorder  in  consequence  of  the 
fire  which  swept  tlie  plain  in  front  of  the  Redan,  and  their 
presence  only  seemed  to  add  to  the  confusion  and  slaughter. 
For  a  full  hour  this  terrible  work  went  on. 

Now  and  then  the  bayonet  was  used,  and  fierce  combats 
occurred  between  little  groups  of  English  and  Russians.  The 
ground  was  covered  with  the  bodies  of  English  and  Russians, 
frequently  locked  in  an  embrace  which  death  made  all  the 
closer.  They  were  found  the  next  day  in  great  numbers 
scattered  through  the  part  of  the  work  which  was  temporarily 
occupied  by  the  English.  The  steady  increase  of  the  Russian 
numbers  was  too  much  for  the  small  force  of  English  in  the 
assaulting  column.  Slowly  the  assailants  were  pressed  back, 
and  in  a  little  while  the  Russians  were  again  masters  of  the 
Redan.  The  ditch  was  crowded  with  dead  and  wounded.  As 
the  Russians  obtained   possession  of   the  interior  of  the  fort, 


I50  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

they  came  to  the  front  and  not  only  discharged  volleys  of  mus- 
ketry at  the  struggling  mass  below,  but  pelted  them  with  stones, 
grapeshot,  and  other  missiles  that  were  near  at  hand.  A  sup- 
porting column  came  up  from  the  trenches,  and  under  their 
fire  the  Russians  were  temporarily  cleared  from  the  front  of 
the  Redan,  while  the  few  English  that  survived  from  the 
assault  were  enabled  to  make  good  their  retreat  to  the  trenches. 
When  the  English  abandoned  the  assault  the  fire  slackened 
from  the  Redan,  and  the  Russians  who  had  been  engaged  at 
that  fortress  were  drawn  off  to  the  Malakoff  to  assist  in  beat- 
ing back  the  French  ;  but  with  all  the  force  they  brought  to 
bear  they  were  unable  to  retake  that  stronghold.  Clouds  of 
smoke  surrounded  the  Malakoff,  but  now  and  then  when  they 
lifted  the  French  flag  could  be  seen  waving  defiantly  above  the 
inner  parapet.  The  battle  was  furious  all  around  it,  and 
though  the  Russians  made  assault  after  assault,  all  their  efforts 
were  in  vain.  The  supporting  columns  poured  steadily  over 
from  the  approaches  and  joined  their  fellows  who  were  making 
a  bold  front  against  the  Russians,  although  the  latter  were  re- 
ceiving fresh  reinforcements  almost  continuously.  Hour  after 
hour  the  fight  went  on,  but  the  issue  was  unchanged.  When 
the  sun  went  down  the  tricolor  still  floated  above  the  Malakoff, 
and  the  fall  of  Sebastopol  was  assured. 

In  the  capture  of  the  Malakoff  the  French  lost  1,646 
killed,  of  whom  5  were  generals,  24  superior,  and  116  in- 
ferior officers,  4,500  wounded,  and  1,400  missing.  In  the 
attack  on  the  Redan  the  English  lost  385  killed,  29  being 
commissioned  and  42  non-commissioned  officers,  1,886 
wounded  and  176  missing. 

During  the  night  between  the  8th  and  9th  the  Russians 
abandoned  the  Redan,  which  the  capture  of  the  Malakoff 
rendered  untenable,  and  the  occupation  of  the  forts  by 
the  allies  made  it  impossible  for  the  Russians  to  remain 
in  Sebastopol.  During  the  night  and  early  morning  the 
Russians  crossed  over  to  the  north  side  of  the  harbor, 
leaving  the  city  in  flames.     All  through  the  night  there 


CAPrURE    OF  THE   MALAKOFF  AND   REDAN.       151 

were  loud  explosions,  caused  by  the  blowing  up  of  maga- 
zines where  the  Russians  had  immense  stores  of  ammuni- 
tion which  they  were  unable  to  remove.  The  city  was 
set  on  fire  in  many  places,  and  when  the  Allies  took  pos- 
session on  the  9th  they  found  little  more  than  a  mass  of 
ruins.  Several  of  the  Russian  ships  had  been  destroyed 
during  the  bombardment,  and  such  as  remained  were 
burned  or  sunk  during  the  night  of  the  evacuation. 

The  Allies  never  made  any  serious  attempt  to  disturb 
the  Russian  forces  on  the  north  side,  and  their  communi- 
cations with  the  interior  were  not  interrupted.  The  two 
armies  confronted  each  other  for  some  time,  but  there 
was  never  any  fighting  of  consequence  after  the  fall  of 
Sebastopol.  Other  warlike  operations  were  conducted 
along  the  Russian  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  Proposals  of 
peace  were  made  by  Austria  with  the  consent  of  the  Al- 
lies, and  finally,  on  the  30th  of  March,  1856,  the  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  at  Paris.  The  Allies  had  begun  the  de- 
struction of  the  docks  at  Sebastopol,  but  so  extensive 
were  those  works  that  with  all  the  engineering  skill  at 
their  command  they  were  not  through  with  it  until  July 
9th,  when  they  evacuated  the  Crimea. 

According  to  English  authorities  the  British  loss  during 
the  Crimean  war  was  about  27,000  men.  The  loss  of  the 
French  was  said  to  be  63,000,  and  that  of  the  Russians 
nearly  half  a  million.  The  English  killed  in  action  or 
died  of  wounds  were  about  3,500,  died  of  cholera  4,244, 
and  of  other  diseases  16,000.  The  remainder  of  the 
27,000  were  permanently  disabled.  Exact  figures  of  the 
Russian  losses  have  never  been  published. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris  Russia  was  required  to  surrender 
the  city  and  citadel  of  Kars  to  the  Sultan,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  allied  powers  were  to  evacuate  all  the 
positions  they  occupied  in  the  Crimea.  Turkey  was  ad- 
mitted to  a  place  among  the  powers  of  Europe  ;  the 
signatory  powers  at  the  conference  agreed  to  respect  the 


152  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

independence  and  territorial  integrity  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  and  to  guarantee  the  observance  of  this  condition 
by  each  other.  Turkey  agreed  to  ameliorate  the  condi- 
tion of  its  Christian  subjects,  but  it  was  stipulated  that 
this  condescension  was  not  to  authorize  the  other  powers, 
either  collectively  or  separately,  to  meddle  with  the  re- 
lations between  the  Porte  and  its  subjects  or  in  the  in- 
terior administration  of  the  empire.  The  Bosphorus  and 
the  Dardanelles  were  to  be  closed  to  all  ships  of  war  of 
foreign  powers  as  long  as  the  Porte  was  at  peace,  and  the 
Black  Sea  was  to  be  neutralized.  Turkey  and  Russia 
were  limited  to  a  naval  force  of  six  steam  vessels  of  not 
more  than  eight  hundred  tons,  and  four  steam  vessels  of 
not  more  than  two  hundred  tons.  Both  nations  were  pro- 
hibited from  establishing  any  naval  arsenal  on  the  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea.  In  Europe,  Russia  was  required  to 
surrender  certain  portions  of  Bessarabia  to  the  Porte,  and 
in  Asia  the  boundaries  were  to  be  established  as  they  ex- 
isted before  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  France,  England, 
and  Austria  entered  into  a  separate  treaty  to  guarantee 
the  integrity  and  independence  of  Turkey,  and  agreed 
that  they  would  consider  any  infraction  of  the  stipulation 
of  this  treaty  a  casus  belli. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  overthrow  of  France  by  Ger- 
many in  1 87 1,  Russia  abrogated  the  treaty  of  1856,  and 
regained  nearly  all  the  rights  of  which  she  had  been  de- 
prived by  that  document.  She  immediately  began  the 
restoration  of  her  naval  arsenals  on  the  shores  of  the 
Black  Sea,  and  laid  the  keels  of  an  iron-clad  fleet  to  con- 
trol those  waters.  Since  1871  Sebastopol  has  been  slowly 
rising  from  her  ruins  ;  her  dockyards  have  been  partially 
restored,  and  an  arsenal  has  been  established  at  Nicolaieff, 
but  it  will  yet  be  many  years  before  the  traces  of  that 
terrible  bombardment  of  September,  1855,  will  have  been 
removed,  and  the  streets  of  the  "  sacred  city  "  present 
the  appearance  they  did    before  the  Allies  began    their 


CAPTURE   OF  THE  MALAKOFF  AND  REDAN.       I  53 

work  of  destruction.  There  are  still  entire  blocks  of  ruins 
in  the  heart  of  Sebastopol,  and  at  almost  every  step  the 
visitor  of  to-day  is  reminded  of  the  memorable  siege,  and 
the  devastation  it  created.  A  railway  connects  the  city 
with  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  port  has  as- 
sumed a  commercial  importance  that  bids  fair  to  surpass 
that  of  Odessa.  In  1885-86  its  population  increased  more 
rapidly  than  at  any  time  since  the  war,  partly  in  conse- 
quence of  the  activity  of  the  government  in  restoring  its 
naval  supremacy  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  partly  owing  to 
large  shipments  of  wheat  and  other  Russian  products. 


CHAPTER    X. 

LUCKNOW   AND    CAWNPORE — 1 857-8. 

On  the  23d  of  June,  1757,  Lord  Clive  defeated  the 
army  of  Surajah  Dowlah,  Nabob  of  Bengal,  on  the  field 
of  Plassey,  in  a  battle  which  ranks  as  one  of  the  decisive 
battles  of  India.  Fifty  years  thereafter  the  Hindoo  as- 
trologers predicted  that  the  year  1857,  the  centenary  of 
Plassey,  would  witness  the  termination  forever  of  the 
British  power  in  India.  Down  to  1857  they  continued  to 
make  this  prediction,  and  early  in  that  year  it  was  evident 
that  a  mutinous  spirit  prevailed  in  the  army  of  Bengal. 
The  Bengal  army  at  that  time  comprised  22,698  Europeans, 
including  the  ofificers  of  native  regiments,  and  118,663 
sepoys,  or  native  soldiers.  The  military  authorities  had 
decided  to  arm  the  sepoys  with  Enfield  rifles,  and  a  new 
kind  of  cartridge,  which  was  greased  in  order  to  adapt  it 
to  the  improved  weapon.  These  cartridges  had  to  be 
torn  with  the  teeth,  in  accordance  with  the  manual  of 
arms,  and  the  report  was  spread  among  the  natives  that 
the  grease  was  a  mixture  of  lard  and  cows'  tallow.  The 
pig  is  an  unclean  beast  in  the  eyes  of  the  Hindoo,  and 
also  the  Moslem,  while  the  cow  is  sacred  ;  consequently, 
both  Hindoo  and  Moslem  would  be  defiled  by  biting  the 
fat  of  the  pig,  and  the  Hindoo  would  commit  sacrilege  in 
biting  cows'  fat. 

There  was  great  excitement  in  all  the  barracks,  which 
was  temporarily  allayed  by  the  substitution  of  the  old  or 
ungreased  cartridge  for  the  new  one.  The  native  soldiers 
had  a  general  impression  that  they  were  about  to  be  de- 

TS4 


LUCKNOIV  AND    CAUWPOKE.  1 55 

prived  of  their  caste,  and  there  were  numerous  malcon- 
tents who  encouraged  this  behef.  Every  concession  by 
the  government  was  regarded  as  part  of  the  scheme,  and 
it  was  useless  to  argue  against  it.  Discontent  grew  stead- 
ily, and  on  the  night  of  the  19th  February  the  Nineteenth 
Native  Infantry  at  Burhampore  broke  open  the  place 
where  the  arms  were  kept,  and  were  only  restrained  from 
a  bloody  mutiny  by  the  presence  of  a  small  force  of  cav- 
alry with  two  guns.  The  regiment  was  disbanded  on  the 
30th  March  at  Barrackpore.  On  the  previous  evening  a 
sepoy  of  the  Thirty-fourth  Regiment  at  Barrackpore  had 
fired  upon  and  severely  wounded  the  adjutant  and  ser- 
geant-major, thus  shedding  the  first  blood  of  the  mutiny. 

On  the  loth  May  there  was  a  formidable  rising  at 
Meerut,  the  rebels  slaughtering  every  English  man, 
woman,  and  child  on  whom  they  could  lay  hands,  and 
then  pillaging  and  setting  fire  to  the  buildings.  When 
they  had  finished  their  terrible  work  they  marched  in  the 
direction  of  Delhi,  killing  every  European  whom  they 
met  on  the  road,  or  in  their  entrance  to  the  city.  The 
native  garrison  of  Delhi  were  easily  persuaded  to  join 
them,  and  a  butchery  of  Europeans  followed  immediately. 
The  rebels  proclaimed  the  restoration  of  the  Mogul 
dynasty,  and  from  that  time  onward  acted  in  the  name  of 
the  King  of  Delhi,  who  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolt, 
and  made  Delhi  the  rallying-point  of  the  rebels  of  the 
northwest  provinces. 

The  native  troops  of  the  kingdom  of  Oude  mutinied 
on  the  30th  and  31st  May.  Elsewhere  the  rising  was  of 
a  purely  military  character;  but  in  Oude  the  people  sym- 
pathized with  the  rebellion,  and  accordingly  it  took  the 
form  of  a  popular  movement  for  independence.  Warn- 
ings of  the  impending  troubles  had  been  received  at 
Cawnpore  earlier  than  in  the  other  stations  of  the  north- 
west province.  About  the  end  of  April  straggling  parties 
of  the  Nineteenth  Native  Infantry,  which  had   been  dis- 


156  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

banded  at  Burhampore  for  mutinous  action,  as  already 
stated,  passed  through  Cawnpore  en  route  to  their  homes 
in  the  country,  and  spread  the  rumors  that  fanned  the 
flame  of  the  insurrection.  The  reputation  of  Cawnpore 
was  by  no  means  good.  Lying  just  over  the  Ganges 
from  the  kingdom  of  Oude,  it  had  been  for  a  long  time  a 
city  of  refugees,  and  also  the  halting-place  whence  offend- 
ers against  the  laws  in  British  territory  found  it  conven- 
ient to  make  their  escape  into  Oude.  The  native  popula- 
tion of  Cawnpore  was  not  far  from  100,000.  Out  of  this 
number  the  40,000  who  dwelt  in  the  military  bazaars  had 
the  worst  reputation.  There  was  an  unusually  large  force 
of  native  troops  at  Cawnpore,  including  the  First,  Fifty- 
third,  and  Fifty-sixth  regiments  of  native  infantry,  the  en- 
tire Second  regiment  of  native  cavalry,  and  a  full  company 
of  native  artillery.  Of  British  troops  there  were  only 
about  200,  comprising  a  few  small  detachments  of  Bengal 
artillery,  the  company's  first  Madras  Fusiliers,  and  Her 
Majesty's  Thirty-second  and  Eighty-fourth  foot.  Major- 
General  Sir  Hugh  Wheeler  was  in  command  at  Cawn- 
pore. Over  seventy  years  of  age,  it  is  fair  to  say  that  he 
had  seen  his  best  days,  and  he  was  on  the  most  friendly 
terms  with  Nana  Sahib,  the  adopted  son  of  the  last  Peishwa 
of  the  Mahrattas.  Nana  Sahib  had  a  deadly  hatred  of 
the  English,  but  managed  to  conceal  most  completely  his 
real  feelings.  He  entertained  the  officers  and  others  at 
his  palace,  which  was  filled  with  European  furniture  and 
bric-a-brac,  and  his  way  of  living  was  more  European  than 
Asiatic. 

Tidings  of  the  insurrection  at  Meerut  and  Delhi  were 
received  at  Cawnpore  on  the  14th  May.  They  not  only 
increased  the  excitement  among  the  native  inhabitants 
and  the  native  soldiery,  but  caused  great  alarm  among 
the  European  residents.  General  Wheeler  telegraphed 
to  Lucknow  that  he  feared  there  was  danger,  and  he  sus- 
pected disafTection  among  the  men  of  the  Second  Cavalry, 


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158  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE    WATERLOO. 

Accordingly  a  reinforcement  of  fifty  men  of  the  Thirty- 
Second  was  sent  to  him.  It  was  considered  desirable  to 
establish  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  English  residents  in 
case  of  an  insurrection.  General  Wheeler  selected  for 
this  purpose  the  depot  of  the  Thirty-Second  Regiment, 
not  far  from  the  Dragoon  Hospital.  This  place  was  des- 
tined to  be  the  scene  of  one  of  the  most  heroic  defences 
that  ever  took  place  since  the  world  began. 

Two  squadrons  of  Oude  Irregular  Cavalry  mutinied  on 
the  27th  May,  killing  all  their  officers,  and  then  sending 
messengers  to  all  the  rest  of  the  native  soldiery  telling 
them  what  had  been  done.  The  other  native  regiments 
followed  their  example,  and  then  laid  siege  to  the  en- 
trenchments which  General  Wheeler  had  prepared.  When 
the  proper  moment  for  his  purpose  arrived,  Nana  Sahib 
threw  ofT  the  mask  and  openly  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  rebellion.  Under  his  direction  the  siege  of 
General  Wheeler's  position  was  conducted  ;  it  lasted 
from  the  6th  to  the  27th  June,  and  is  thus  described 
by  an  historian  : 

"  It  was  a  siege  the  miseries  of  which  to  the  besieged  have 
never  been  exceeded  in  the  history  of  the  world.  All  the 
wonted  terrors  of  a  multitudinous  enemy  without,  of  a  feeble 
garrison  and  scant  shelter  within,  of  the  burden  of  women 
and  children  and  sick  people,  with  little  to  appease  their  wants 
or  allay  their  sufferings,  were  aggravated  by  the  burning  heat 
of  the  climate.  The  June  sky  was  little  less  than  a  great 
canopy  of  fire  ;  the  summer  breeze  was  as  the  blast  of  a  fur- 
nace ;  to  touch  the  barrel  of  a  gun  was  to  recoil  as  from  red- 
hot  iron.  It  was  the  season  when  European  strength  and 
energy  are  ever  at  their  lowest  point  of  depression — when 
military  duty  in  its  mildest  form  taxes  the  power  of  English- 
men to  the  utmost,  and  English  women  can  do  little  more  than 
sustain  life  in  shaded  apartments,  with  all  appliances  at  hand 
to  moderate  the  temperature  and  mitigate  the  suffering.  But 
now,  even   under   the  fierce   meridian   sun,  this  little   band  of 


LUCK  NOW  AND    CAWNPOKE.  1 59 

English  fighting  men  were  ever  straining  to  sustain  the  strenu- 
ous activity  of  constant  battle  against  fearful  odds  ;  while 
delicate  women  and  fragile  children  were  suddenly  called  to 
endure  discomforts  and  privations,  with  all  the  superadded 
miseries  peculiar  to  the  country  and  climate,  which  it  would 
have  been  hard  to  battle  with  in  strong  health  under  their 
native  skies.  .  .  .  And  never  since  war  began — '  never  in 
the  brave  days  of  old '  when  women  turned  their  hair  into  bow- 
strings— has  the  world  seen  nobler  patience  and  fortitude  than 
clothed  the  lives  and  shone  forth  in  the  deaths  of  the  wives 
and  daughters  of  the  fighting  men  of  Cawnpore.  Some  saw 
their  children  slowly  die  in  their  arms  ;  some  had  them  swept 
from  their  breasts  by  the  desolating  fire  of  the  enemy.  There 
was  no  misery  which  humanity  could  endure  that  did  not  fall 
heavily  upon  our  Englishwomen.  Day  by  day  the  little  gar- 
rison diminished,  struck  down  by  the  insurgents'  shot  or  the 
fierce  rays  of  the  sun.  Water  was  scarce,  and  could  only  be 
obtained  from  the  well  at  the  risk  of  life.  The  air  was  tainted 
by  the  foul  gases  from  the  carcases  of  horses  or  oxen  ;  the 
bodies  of  the  slain  were  thrown  into  a  dry  well  to  avoid 
contagion." 

While  the  siege  was  in  progress  Nana  Sahib  captured 
several  bands  of  English  fugitives  from  other  stations, 
who  were  making  their  way  in  the  direction  of  Calcutta, 
among  them  one  party  of  a  hundred  men,  women,  and 
children  from  Futtyghyr.  The  men  were  put  to  death 
with  various  kinds  of  torture,  while  the  women  and  chil- 
dren were  retained  as  prisoners.  On  the  twenty-first  day 
of  the  siege  one  of  the  prisoners  was  sent  to  General 
Wheeler  bearing  a  letter  from  Nana  Sahib,  in  which  he 
offered  safe  conduct  to  Allahabad  to  all  who  would  lay 
down  their  arms.  At  first  General  Wheeler  refused  the 
terms,  but  after  some  deliberation  they  were  accepted, 
and  it  was  arranged  that  sufficient  boats  were  to  be  at 
the  landing-place  on  the  morning  of  the  27th  June.  On 
that  morning  a  mournful  procession  of  two  hundred  worn, 
emaciated    sufferers   filed   out    of  the  entrenchments  and 


l6o  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

moved  slowly  towards  the  river.  The  sick  and  wounded 
were  carried  in  palanquins  supplied  by  Nana  Sahib,  and 
the  baggage  was  piled  upon  elephants.  No  order  was 
observed  in  boarding  the  boats,  which  lay  a  few  feet  from 
the  shore  ;  each  boat  was  to  push  off  when  loaded,  but 
when  the  cargoes  were  on  board  it  was  found  that  every 
boat  was  fast  in  the  sand. 

At  a  signal  from  the  shore  the  crews  of  the  boats 
jumped  overboard  and  made  for  the  shore,  and  then  the 
rebels  opened  upon  the  doomed  band  with  small-arms 
and  artillery.  Before  leaving  the  boats  the  crew  had  man- 
aged to  secrete  burning  coals  in  the  thatch  roofs,  and 
very  soon  they  were  found  to  be  on  fire.  Two  boats  got 
away  at  last,  but  a  murderous  fire  was  maintained  upon 
them.  Of  the  whole  party  of  two  hundred  and  more, 
only  four  escaped  ;  those  who  were  not  killed  by  the 
enemy's  shot  or  drowned  in  the  river  were  taken  back  to 
Cawnpore,  where  they  were  held  as  prisoners  until  the 
massacre,  which  preceded  the  arrival  of  the  relieving 
column  of  General  Havelock  on  the  i6th  July.  In  that 
massacre  some  two  hundred  English  and  half-castes, 
mostly  women  and  children,  were  slaughtered  and  thrown 
into  a  well  by  orders  of  Nana  Sahib. 

General  Havelock  marched  up  the  Grand  Trunk  road 
in  the  direction  of  Cawnpore  with  1,400  European  soldiers 
and  8  guns.  As  soon  as  news  of  his  advance  was  received 
at  Cawnpore,  Bala  Ras  went  out  with  every  available 
man  in  the  endeavor  to  stop  him.  Nana  Sahib's  brother 
was  defeated  at  Aong,  in  Futtypore.  The  bridge  over 
the  Pandu  was  carried  after  a  sharp  iight,  and  on  the  15th 
of  July  the  English  triumphantly  entered  the  District  of 
Cawnpore.  Bala  Ras  retreated  to  Cawnpore,  carrying 
the  news  of  his  own  repulse  and  suffering  severely  from  a 
wound  received  in  the  fight. 

On  the  i6th  Jul}-,  Havelock  halted  his  men  at  noon  at 
Ahirwan,  a  station  on  the  Grand  Trunk  road,  about  three 


LUCKNOW  AND    CAWNPORE.  l6l 

miles  southeast  of  Cawnporc.  His  troops  had  already 
marched  nearly  twenty  miles  that  day.  They  were  greatly 
wearied,  and  in  no  way  ready  for  action.  The  rebel  entrench- 
ments were  about  a  mile  in  front  of  their  position,  directly 
across  the  junction  of  the  Grand  Trunk  road  and  the 
side  road  which  leads  into  Cawnporc.  The  rebel  force 
was  about  5,000  strong.  Their  right  and  left  wings  rested 
upon  villages,  surrounded  by  strong  walls  and  defended 
by  heavy  guns,  while  the  rebels  were  stationed  in  groves 
of  trees,  which  gave  them  excellent  protection.  In  their 
centre  they  had  a  small  battery  of  light  artilleiy,  and 
their  position  was  very  much  like  that  of  the  right  and 
left  wing.  Both  in  numbers  and  artillery  they  were  far 
superior  to  the  English,  and  it  seemed  almost  like  inviting 
defeat  for  the  latter  to  advance  along  the  road  against 
the  well-arranged  front  which  the  rebels  presented.  Gen- 
eral Havelock  carefully  reconnoitred  their  position  and 
very  wisely  determined  to  outflank  it.  Moving  across 
the  country  toward  the  right,  and  passing  from  grove  to 
grove,  he  attacked  the  enemy's  left  flank.  Previously  to 
doing  so,  he  drew  a  plan  in  the  dust  of  the  road,  using 
the  end  of  his  scabbard  for  a  pencil,  and  explained  his 
intended  manoeuvre  to  all  his  ofificers,  so  that  it  could  be 
carried  out  in  case  of  any  accident  to  himself.  The  order  to 
advance  was  given  at  about  half-past  two  in  the  afternoon. 

The  small  force  of  Sikh  cavalry  who  had  remained 
loyal  and  performed  excellent  service,  was  ordered  to 
advance  and  make  a  feint  upon  the  enemy's  front,  but 
not  to  engage  him.  The  ruse  was  completely  successful. 
The  rebels  concentrated  their  fire  upon  the  cavalry,  and 
the  flanking  movement  of  the  infantry  was  almost  com- 
pleted before  the  rebels  discovered  what  was  going  on. 

An  opening  of  the  trees  showed  them  what  the  move- 
ment was.  The  English  artillery  was  still  in  the  rear,  and 
the  rebels  used  their  old  field-pieces  against  the  assailants 
with  considerable  effect.     With  their  overweening  confi- 


l62  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

dence  in  their  artillery,  the  rebels  felt  entirely  sure  of 
their  position,  and  they  derisively  ordered  the  bands  to 
play  "  Cheer,  Boys,  Cheer!  "  The  Seventy-eighth  High- 
landers advanced  partly  to  this  music  and  partly  to  their 
own  instruments,  for  which  Scotland  is  celebrated.  They 
charged  upon  the  rebels,  closely  followed  by  the  64th 
Regiment.  In  a  very  few  minutes  the  rebel  music  was 
entirely  silenced,  and  the  rebel  left  wing  was  in  full  flight ; 
their  guns  were  captured,  and  the  villages  where  they  had 
been  so  strongly  posted  were  in  English  hands.  Many 
of  the  sepoys  retreated  eastward  and  westward,  and  not 
in  the  direction  of  Cawnpore.  They  had  had  quite 
enough  of  fighting,  and  were  decidedly  anxious  to  reach 
their  homes.  Those  who  did  not  flee  rushed  to  strengthen 
the  centre  of  the  rebel  position.  General  Havelock  halted 
his  men  briefly  to  enable  them  to  take  breath,  and  then 
after  a  short  but  stirring  speech  ordered  another  advance. 
The  cavalry  now  came  to  the  support  of  the  infantry. 
A  brief  contest  followed,  and  then  a  loud  cheer,  running 
along  the  whole  British  line,  told  that  the  centre  of  the 
rebel  forces  had  been  broken  in.  The  cavalry  retained  its 
position  at  the  centre  w^ith  the  captured  rebel  howitzer, 
while  the  infantry  advanced  toward  the  rebel  right.  The 
same  good-fortune  followed  them.  They  broke  the  rebel 
infantry  line,  and  captured  two  cannon.  The  enemy's 
original  line  of  battle  was  thus  completely  broken  up.  Al- 
though success  had  crowned  the  efforts  of  the  wearied  lit- 
tle army  of  British  troops,  its  work  was  by  no  means 
over.  A  little  in  the  rear  of  the  first  position  of  the 
rebels  was  a  village,  surrounded  by  a  wood,  and  here  the 
Nana's  force  rallied  again.  Their  remaining  artillery 
opened  a  destructive  fire  upon  the  British  advance. 
Havelock  rode  up,  and  in  a  loud,  clear  voice  asked  what 
regiment  would  undertake  the  capture  of  the  village.  No 
answer  was  given  in  words ;  but  the  infantry  advanced 
rapidly,  and  the  village  was  soon  in  their  possession. 


LUCKNOW  AND   CAWNPORE,  1 63 

The  rebels  seemed  to  be  in  full  retreat  towards  Cawn- 
pore  after  this  misfortune,  and  the  wearied  soldiers  lay 
down  upon  the  ground  to  have  a  brief  rest.  Again 
the  rebels  rallied,  led  by  the  Nana  in  person.  He 
had  stationed  3  guns,  one  of  them  a  24-pounder, 
upon  the  branch  road  leading  to  Cawnpore,  and  as  the 
British  advanced  they  received  a  severe  fire  from  these 
guns.  The  rebel  cavalry  advanced,  followed  closely  by 
the  rebel  infantry,  and  accompanied  by  the  trumpets  and 
bands  of  music.  The  English  advanced  again  ;  but  well- 
directed  volleys  of  grape  and  canister  cut  down  many  of 
their  numbers.  As  they  were  moving  forward  under  the 
leadership  of  General  Havelock's  son,  who  was  serving 
on  his  staff,  the  infantry  charged  and  captured  the  24- 
pounder,  and  simultaneously  four  British  guns  were 
brought  forward,  and  opened  fire  on  the  rebels.  The  fire 
of  these  guns  threw  the  sepoys  into  consternation,  and 
they  fled  rapidly  towards  Cawnpore. 

Havelock's  men  were  too  weary  after  their  day's  march- 
ing and  fighting  to  pursue  the  enemy,  and  they  went  into 
camp  about  two  miles  from  the  city.  During  the  evening 
Nana  Sahib  fled  from  Cawnpore  towards  Bitheer.  On  the 
17th  July  Havelock  entered  Cawnpore,  and  encamped 
within  what  had  formerly  been  the  British  lines.  The 
massacre  of  the  prisoners  took  place  on  the  evening  of 
the  i6th  at  the  time  of  Nana  Sahib's  flight  from  Cawn- 
pore. 

At  Lucknow,  the  capital  of  the  lately  annexed  king- 
dom of  Oude,  the  sepoys  openly  mutinied  at  the  canton- 
ment, four  miles  from  the  city,  on  the  30th  May,  1857. 
Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  the  Chief  Commissioner,  immediate- 
ly placed  the  Residency  and  a  wide  enclosure  around  it  in 
a  state  of  defence,  and  was  occupied  with  this  work 
through  the  greater  part  of  June.  Hearing  that  a  large 
force  of  rebels  was  encamped  a  few  miles  distant  on 
the    Fyzabad  road,    he   started  to  attack    them    on    the 


164  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

morning  of  the  30th  June  with  700  men  and  ii 
guns.  He  fell  into  an  ambush  near  Chinhut,  and  was 
compelled  to  retire  before  an  overwhelming  force  and 
seek  safety  in  his  entrenchments.  Weakened  by  losses 
he  determined  to  abandon  all  outworks,  and  after  destroy- 
ing a  large  amount  of  ammunition  and  military  stores  to 
prevent  their  capture  by  the  enemy,  he  assembled  all  the 
European  population  within  the  enclosure  of  the  Resi- 
dency. This  retirement  to  the  Residency  took  place  on 
July  1st,  the  day  following  the  Chinhut  disaster,  and  may 
properly  be  considered  the  beginning  of  the  rebel  siege. 
The  rebels  immediately  surrounded  the  place,  and  on  the 
2d  July  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  was  mortally  wounded  by  a 
shell,  and  died  two  days  afterwards.  Before  his  death  he 
named  Major  Inglis  his  military  successor,  and  Major 
Banks  Chief  Commissioner. 

The  Residency  now  contained  900  Europeans  and  700 
loyal  natives.  The  siege  lasted  for  twelve  weeks,  and  in- 
cluded all  the  horrors  of  that  of  Cawnpore  already  told. 
Overwork,  exposure,  bad  provisions,  cholera,  dysentery, 
fever,  and  other  diseases  were  busy,  in  addition  to  the 
bullets  and  shells  of  the  50,000  besiegers.  The  women 
and  children,  being  less  inured  to  hardships,  suffered 
more  than  the  men,  and  many  of  them  sickened  and  died 
before  the  end  of  those  terrible  twelve  weeks.  The 
rebels  maintained  a  steady  fire  on  the  Residency;  they 
ran  mines  beneath  some  of  the  buildings,  and  on  several 
occasions  stormed  the  entrenchments.  Constant  vigi- 
lance was  necessary  for  the  little  band  of  defenders,  and 
they  looked  anxiously  for  relief.  On  the  25th  July  a  spy 
brought  a  letter  from  General  Havelock,  saying  they  would 
be  relieved  in  a  few  days ;  but  the  promised  succor  did 
not  reach  them  until  two  months  later. 

Immediately  after  capturing  Cawnpore,  Havelock  turned 
his  attention  to  the  relief  of  Lucknow,  fifty-five  miles  dis- 
tant, but  the  rebel   force  between   Cawnpore   and   Luck- 


LUCKNOW  AND    CAWNPORE.  1 65 

now  was  so  great  that  his  advance  was  impossible. 
Cholera  had  broken  out  in  his  camp,  and  his  fighting  men 
were  less  than  a  thousand,  while  the  rebels  between  him 
and  Lucknow  were  fully  30,000  strong.  During  August 
and  early  September  he  was  unable  to  move  forward, 
though  he  did  not  remain  idle,  as  he  was  constantly  at- 
tacking detached  bands  of  rebels  wherever  he  could  hear 
of  them.  On  the  15th  of  September  he  was  joined  by 
Sir  James  Outram  and  1,700  European  soldiers,  and  four 
days  later  he  crossed  the  Ganges  in  the  face  of  the  enemy 
and  advanced  upon  Lucknow.  After  severe  fighting,  in 
which  there  was  a  great  slaughter  of  the  rebels  and 
heavy  losses  by  the  English,  the  forces  of  Havelock  and 
Outram  entered  the  Residency.  The  relief  thus  brought 
to  the  besieged  was  more  in  name  than  any  thing  else  ;  it 
was  the  intention  to  escort  the  garrison  to  Cawnporc,  but 
the  unexpected  strength  of  the  rebels  and  the  heavy  loss 
sustained  in  the  entrance  made  a  safe  retirement  impossi- 
ble. There  was  nothing  to  do  but  wait  for  other  British 
troops  to  come  to  their  relief.  Havelock's  arrival  gave 
additional  strength  to  the  number  of  the  defenders,  but 
there  were  more  mouths  to  feed,  and  the  entire  garrison 
was  put  on  very  short  rations. 

The  rebels  continued  their  siege,  but  by  this  time  the 
fall  of  Delhi  had  released  a  considerable  force  of  troops 
that  might  be  employed  elsewhere.  Through  October 
the  siege  went  on,  and  on  the  9th  November  Sir  Colin 
Campbell  left  Cawnpore  with  a  force  of  4,000  men,  partly 
European  and  partly  Sikhs  who  had  remained  loyal  to  the 
British.  By  the  evening  of  the  15th  he  was  within  three 
miles  of  Lucknow,  and  on  the  next  day  he  assaulted  the 
rebel  lines  and  entered  the  Residency.  The  retirement 
with  the  women  and  children  was  accomplished  by 
strategy  ;  the  rebels  held  nearly  the  whole  city  and  sur- 
rounding positions,  and  the  line  of  retirement  resembled 
a  tortuous  lane  with  many  points  of  attack. 


1 66  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

A  vigorous  fire  was  directed  against  one  of  the  strong 
points  of  the  rebels  as  though  the  British  were  about  to 
assault  it.  The  fire  was  maintained  until  a  practicable 
breach  had  been  made  and  every  thing  was  ready  for  the 
assault.  Then  at  midnight  on  the  22d  the  English  silently 
retired  in  the  opposite  direction,  carrying  away  the  entire 
garrison  and  all  the  valuable  stores  from  the  Residency. 
So  completely  were  the  rebels  deceived  that  they  kept  up 
their  fire  on  the  Residency  until  daylight.  General  Have- 
lock  died  of  dysentery  and  exhaustion  on  the  third  day 
of  the  retreat  from  Lucknow. 

When  Delhi  fell  the  government  considered  the  rebel- 
lion broken,  but  it  very  soon  learned  its  mistake.  The 
relief  of  the  garrison  of  Lucknow  was  simply  a  saving  of 
life ;  the  city  was  in  the  hands  of  the  rebels,  and  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  province  of  Oude  was  controlled  by 
then\.  While  Sir  Colin  Campbell  was  retiring  from  Luck- 
now with  the  relieved  garrison,  he  was  called  to  disperse 
the  "  Gwalior  Contingent  "  that  had  rebelled  and  was  ad- 
vancing in  the  direction  of  Cawnpore,  near  which  place  it 
had  already  defeated  General  Windham,  who  commanded 
the  garrison  there  and  marched  out  to  meet  them. 

During  December  Cawnpore  was  attacked  by  a  well- 
appointed  army  of  rebels  25,000  strong,  which  was  re- 
pulsed with  heavy  loss.  To  defeat  it,  Sir  Colin  was 
obliged  to  draw  from  near  Lucknow  a  portion  of  the  force 
with  which  he  was  preparing  to  besiege  the  place  ;  the 
government  had  determined  that  the  rebels  in  Oude  must 
be  crushed  at  all  hazards,  and  were  hurrying  men  and 
munitions  to  Sir  Colin  as  fast  as  possible. 

At  the  end  of  February,  1858,  the  total  strength  at  Sir 
Colin  Campbell's  disposal  for  the  siege  of  Lucknow 
amounted  to  20,000  men,  with  180  pieces  of  artillerj-. 
He  had  made  a  thoroughly  scientific  plan  for  the  cap- 
ture of  Lucknow,  and  one  which  would  spare  as  much  as 
possible    the    blood   and  lives  of  his   men.      The  city  of 


LUCKNOW  AND    CAWNPORE.  1 67 

Lucknow  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gumti  River,  in 
the  form  of  a  parallelogram  from  west  to  east.  It  is 
nearly  five  miles  long,  and  its  greatest  width  on  the  west 
side  is  about  one  and  one  half  miles.  The  east  side  is  not 
over  one  mile  in  width.  Over  the  Gumti  there  are  two 
bridges,  one  of  iron  and  the  other  of  masonry,  which 
bring  the  business  of  the  country  from  the  north  side  of 
the  river  into  the  centre  of  the  city.  On  the  east  and 
south  sides  of  Lucknow  there  is  a  canal  deeply  cut  into 
the  earth.  It  bends  around  in  a  southwesterly  direction, 
leaving  the  country  on  the  western  side  of  the  city  quite 
open.  It  is  intersected  with  ravines  toward  the  northeast, 
near  the  point  where  it  unites  with  the  Gumti  ;  the  banks 
of  the  canal  slope  gently  and  are  passable  for  footmen  and 
cavalr}-. 

At  the  time  of  Sir  Colin  Campbell's  advance  upon 
Lucknow,  the  principal  positions  inside  the  city  were  the 
Kaiser  Bagh,  the  Residency,  the  ruins  of  the  Machi  Ba- 
wan,  which  commanded  the  masonry  bridge,  the  Musa 
Bagh,  the  Imambara,  and  a  series  of  palaces  which  extend 
towards  the  canal  from  the  Kaiser  Bagh.  On  the  east 
side  of  the  city  and  beyond  the  canal  was  the  Martini^re, 
a  curious  palace,  or  collection  of  palaces,  built  by  a 
Frenchman  formerly  in  the  employ  of  the  old  King  of 
Oude,  and  occupying  a  commanding  position  in  full  view 
of  the  cit)-.  Still  higher  than  the  Martiniere,  on  the  edge 
of  a  stretch  of  table-land,  was  the  Dilkusha  Palace. 

Learning  wisdom  by  their  experience  of  the  previous 
year,  the  rebels  had  gradually  strengthened  their  de- 
fences by  means  of  breastworks  which  showed  that  they 
did  not  stint  their  labor.  Believing  that  the  English 
would  advance  by  the  same  line  as  before,  they  had 
flanked  with  strong  bastions  the  former  route  which  Sir 
Colin  took  across  the  canal  where  its  banks  were  sloping. 
The  rebels  had  no  less  than  three  lines  of  defence  at  the 
juncture  of  three  principal   roads.     The  outer  line  of  de- 


1 68  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

fence  was  supported  by  a  strong  battery  of  9  guns  ;  the 
second  line  consisted  of  bastioned  rampart  and  parapet 
with  its  right  resting  on  the  Imambara;  from  this  im- 
mense building  it  continued  to  the  Mess  House,  and 
reached  the  bank  of  the  Gumti  close  by  the  Moti  Mahal. 
The  third  line  covered  the  front  of  the  Kaiser  Bagh. 
Altogether  they  had  100  guns  protecting  this  defence. 
Furthermore,  all  the  principal  streets  of  Lucknow  were 
barricaded  and  bastioned,  and  every  building  of  conse- 
quence had  its  walls  loop-holed  for  musketry,  besides 
earthworks  to  protect   its  entrance. 

Numerous  spies  were  sent  out  to  obtain  as  accurately 
as  possible  a  statement  of  the  condition  of  the  defences. 
Basing  his  opinion  upon  their  reports,  Brigadier  Napier 
thought  that  the  attack  should  be  made  on  the  east  side, 
for  the  reason  that  it  presented  the  smallest  front,  was 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  Kaiser  Bagh,  and  that  the 
ground  was  favorable  for  establishing  batteries.  Argu- 
ments were  advanced  opposing  his  opinion,  but  at  one 
time  it  prevailed,  and  the  decision  was  taken  to  make 
the  attack  on  the  eastern  side  of  Lucknow.  The  rebels 
did  not  fortify  the  northern  side,  because  they  had  rea- 
soned that  since  neither  General  Havelock  nor  Sir  Colin 
in  the  previous  year  had  approached  the  Gumti  they  would 
not  be  likely  to  do  so  in  the  present  instance,  and  there- 
fore the  river  side  was  neglected.  As  soon  as  this  error 
in  their  defences  was  discovered,  Sir  Colin  naturally  de- 
cided to  take  advantage  of  it.  He  arranged  to  send  an 
entire  division  of  all  arms  across  the  Gumti,  and  then,  by 
marching  up  the  bank  of  the  river,  they  could  take  the 
rebel  position  in  reverse,  and  by  a  vigorous  use  of  artil- 
lery make  it  untenable. 

Bright  and  early  on  the  2d  of  March,  General  Campbell 
began  the  execution  of  his  plans.  He  advanced  on  the 
Dilkusha  Park  with  the  following-named  forces  :  The  Third 
and    Fourth    Brigades    of    infantry,    which    included    the 


LUCKNOW  AND    CAWNPORE.  1 69 

Thirtieth,  Thirty-eighth,  and  Fifty-third  Regiments ;  the 
Fourth  Brigade,  which  included  the  Forty-second  and 
Forty-ninth  Highlanders;  the  Fourth  Punjaub  Rifles; 
the  artillery  divisions  of  Sir  A.  Wilson  and  Colonel 
Wood  ;  three  troops  of  horse  artillery  ;  two  24-pounders, 
two  8-inch  howitzers  of  the  Naval  Brigade,  and  a  corps 
of  sappers  and  miners.  After  passing  the  fort  of  Jal- 
alabad, Sir  Colin  encountered  the  rebel  pickets,  which  he 
drove  in,  and  then  captured  one  piece  of  artillery.  The 
palace  was  immediately  occupied  as  an  advance  picket  on 
the  right  of  the  line.  The  enemy's  guns  which  were 
placed  along  the  canal  completely  dominated  the  plateau 
where  the  Dilkusha  Palace  stands,  and  it  was  found  im- 
possible to  bring  up  the  main  force  of  the  intantry. 
Accordingly,  Sir  Colin  ordered  batteries  to  be  erected  at 
Dilkusha  to  silence  the  enemy's  fire.  The  batteries  were 
established  during  the  night  of  the  2d,  and  were  ready  for 
operations  at  daylight  on  the  3d.  As  soon  as  their  fire 
began,  that  of  the  enemy  slackened  materially. 

Then  the  infantry  was  brought  up,  massed  around  the 
Dilkusha,  and  enabled  the  British  to  establish  a  new  line. 
This  line  rested  its  right  on  the  Gumti  at  the  village 
of  Bibiapur.  From  this  village,  extending  toward  the 
left,  it  touched  the  Dilkusha  and  extended  in  the  direction 
of  Jalalabad  to  within  two  miles  of  that  fort.  The  line 
was  completed  by  Brigadier-General  Franks  with  a  force 
of  English  and  Nepaulese  troops.  While  General  Franks 
was  getting  into  position.  Sir  Colin  ordered  two  pontoon 
bridges  to  be  thrown  over  the  Gumti  near  Bibiapur,  and 
this  work  was  accomplished  by  the  morning  of  the  6th. 
Anticipating  the  completion  of  the  bridges,  Sir  Colin  or- 
dered General  Outram  to  cross  to  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
at  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  with  a  strong  division 
of  all  arms. 

The  night  was  very  dark,  and  over  the  broken  ground 
intersected  with   ravines  and   waterways,  Outram's  men 


170  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

were  greatly  troubled  to  find  their  way.  Outram  went 
on  ahead  to  the  bridges,  where  he  sat  on  the  ground  and 
waited  for  the  troops  to  come  up,  well  knowing  that  his 
officers  were  doing  every  thing  possible  to  bring  them  for- 
ward at  the  time  appointed.  It  was  not  until  four  o'clock 
that  the  cavalry  advance,  the  Second  Punjaub,  arrived  at 
the  bridges.  The  crossing  began  immediately,  and  the 
whole  force  was  over  the  river  by  daylight.  Forming  his 
command  in  three  lines,  Outram  advanced  along  the  left 
bank  of  the  Gumti  for  about  a  mile,  and  then  marched 
directly  towards  the  city.  He  met  with  no  opposition 
and  formed  his  camp  that  evening  about  four  miles  from 
Lucknow. 

The  7th  and  8th  of  March  were  mainly  passed  in  re- 
connoitring and  light  skirmishes.  The  rebels  were  re- 
pulsed every  time  they  advanced.  Outram  retained  the 
position  where  he  had  encamped  for  his  main  force,  but 
steadily  during  the  day  pushed  his  pickets  forward. 
During  the  night  he  threw  up  earthworks  and  mounted 
two  batteries  with  heavy  guns  about  six  hundred  yards 
from  the  rebel  works  on  the  old  race-course. 

His  attack  began  at  daybreak  on  the  9th.  General 
Walpole  forced  back  the  enemy's  left  from  the  villages 
and  jungles  that  covered  their  position,  while  Outram  did 
the  same  on  their  right.  News  of  the  success  of  the 
movement  was  conveyed  to  Sir  Colin  by  displaying  the 
colors  of  the  First  Fusiliers  from  the  top  of  the  Yellow 
House.  As  soon  as  the  colors  were  displayed,  Sir  Colin 
advanced  and  very  speedily  formed  a  junction  with  the 
right  wing.  Then  the  entire  line  was  halted  while  three 
heavy  guns  and  a  howitzer  were  brought  forward  to  en- 
filade the  works  behind  the  Martiniere.  General  Camp- 
bell had  waited  patiently  at  the  Dilkusha  during  the  time 
Outram  was  making  the  movements  which  formed  an 
important  preliminary  to  the  attack  upon  Lucknow.  Fire 
was  opened  on  the  Martiniere  and  steadily  kept  up  from 


171 


1/2  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

daylight  until  two  in  the  afternoon,  when  Sir  Colin 
ordered  Hope's  Brigade,  supported  by  the  Fifty-third  and 
Nintieth  Regiments,  to  advance  against  the  Martiniere. 
Aided  by  Outram's  enfilading  batteries,  they  carried  it 
without  opposition,  the  rebels  fleeing  over  the  river,  but 
taking  their  guns  along  with  them.  Both  lines  of  opera- 
tion were  successful,  Outram  being  fairly  established  on 
one  side  of  the  parallelogram,  and  thus  enabling  Sir  Colin 
to  advance  on  its  other  side. 

The  next  movement  was  on  the  loth,  when  the  two 
sides  of  the  parallelogram  were  practically  completed  by 
the  storming  and  capture  of  Banks'  House.  The  next 
move  was  to  pierce  the  centre  of  the  rebel  line,  which  ex- 
tended from  Banks'  House  to  a  point  on  the  Kaiser  Bagh. 
Outram  was  ordered  to  assail  the  positions  which  covered 
the  iron  and  masonry  bridges.  The  iron  bridge  led  to 
the  Residency  and  the  masonry  one  to  the  Machi  Bawan. 
The  same  plan  was  followed  as  in  the  capture  of  the 
Martiniere  and  the  Dilkusha.  Batteries  were  established 
to  enfilade  the  enemy's  works,  and  at  the  same  time  throw 
a  vertical  and  direct  fire  upon  the  Kaiser  Bagh.  On  the 
nth.  General  Outram  advanced  General  Walpole's  divi- 
sion to  a  position  which  commanded  the  iron  bridge. 
Pushing  through  the  suburbs,  he  occupied  the  Mosque, 
about  a  thousand  yards  from  the  bridge,  and  there  he  left 
the  First  Fusiliers.  From  the  Mosque  he  went  on  to  the 
head  of  the  stone  bridge,  but  found  the  position  un- 
tenable with  infantry,  as  it  was  commanded  by  the  rebel 
guns,  and  therefore  he  withdrew  again  to  the  Mosque. 
In  the  meanwhile,  a  battery  had  been  established  close 
to  the  iron  bridge. 

While  these  movements  were  taking  place  on  the  right, 
the  heavy  batteries  on  the  left  had  opened  a  fire  of  shot 
and  shell  on  the  Bakum  Kothi.  The  line  of  palaces 
known  by  that  name  were  very  strongly  built,  and  if  well 
garrisoned  and  properly  defended  they  were  capable  of 


LUCKNOW  AND    CAWNPORE.  1 73 

making  a  long  resistance,  even  against  the  well-equipped 
British  forces.  Sir  Colin  knew  the  character  of  the  peo- 
ple against  whom  he  was  making  war.  He  knew  that  in 
fighting  against  Asiatics  an  immense  superiority  is  always 
given  to  an  advancing  force,  and  this  is  an  element  which 
is  of  far  greater  consideration  in  Asia  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  Although  the  position  seemed  a  very 
strong  one.  Sir  Colin  did  not  hesitate  to  order  an  assault 
at  once.  The  approach  was  decided  to  be  practical,  and 
the  order  was  given  to  storm. 

The  storming  party  consisted  of  the  Fourth  Punjaub 
and  the  Ninety-third  Highlanders,  the  same  who  had 
stormed  the  Sikander  Bagh  in  the  previous  year.  Having 
taken  part  in  Sir  Colin's  first  movement  upon  Lucknow, 
they  deserved  the  honor  of  leading  the  advance  in  the 
second  and  final  seige.  The  buildings  to  be  stormed  were 
surrounded  by  a  breastwork,  with  a  deep  ditch,  and  con- 
sisted of  several  palaces  and  court-yards,  one  inside  the 
other.  The  breastwork  and  the  wall  of  the  outer  court- 
yard had  been  breached  by  the  fire  of  the  batteries ;  but 
most  of  the  inner  walls  had  not  been  greatly  injured. 
The  indications  were  that  their  sepoy  garrison  was  not 
less  than  5,000  strong. 

General  Hope  led  the  assault  at  4  in  the  afternoon, 
the  Highlanders  in  the  advance  and  the  Punjaubees  in 
support.  At  the  opening  in  the  breastwork  they  met 
with  a  fierce  resistance,  and  for  a  while  success  seemed 
doubtful,  owing  to  the  greatly  superior  numbers  of  the 
sepoys.  But  British  valor  could  not  be  easily  overcome, 
and  the  fighting  continued  steadily.  When  the  sepoys 
were  driven  back  from  the  breach  they  seemed  to  have 
lost  heart,  and  to  make  but  a  feeble  resistance  at  their 
other  strong  positions.  The  Highlanders  and  the  Pun- 
jaubees fought  like  tigers.  Not  a  sepoy  asked  for  quar- 
ter, and  no  quarter  was  offered  by  the  British  soldiers. 
When  the   last  survivor  of  the    garrison    of  the  Bakum 


174  DECISIVE   BATTIES   SINCE   WATERIOO. 

Kothi  fled  from  it,  there  were  fully  600  corpses  inside  the 
space  surrounded  by  its  ditch.  During  the  whole  siege 
there  was  no  severer  fight  than  this.  The  way  was  now 
opened  for  Brigadier  Napier  to  proceed  by  the  sap  and 
heavy  guns. 

"Thenceforward,"  says  Sir  Colin,  in  his  report,  "  he 
pushed  his  approach  with  the  greatest  judgment  through 
the  enclosures,  the  troops  immediately  occupying  the 
ground  as  he  advanced,  and  the  mortars  being  moved 
from  one  position  to  another  as  ground  was  won  on  which 
they  could  be  placed." 

By  the  close  of  the  day,  on  the  13th,  the  engineers  had 
completed  their  work.  All  the  great  buildings  on  the 
left  of  the  line  as  far  as  the  Imambara  had  been  sapped 
through.  The  artillery,  which  had  been  steadily  playing 
on  the  walls  of  the  Imambara,  had  made  a  breach  which 
was  considered  practicable  for  an  assault.  The  firing  was 
continued  through  the  night  of  the  13th,  and  on  the 
morning  of  the  14th  the  heavy  guns,  at  only  thirty  yards 
distance,  pounded  steadily  away.  The  sepoys  did  not  re- 
ply with  artillery,  but  they  kept  up  a  steady  fire  of  mus- 
ketry from  the  tops  of  the  walls.  At  9  in  the  forenoon 
the  order  for  the  assault  was  given.  The  men  went  for- 
ward with  a  rush,  and  very  speedily  were  in  full  posses- 
sion of  the  palaces.  They  did  not  stop  there,  but  pursued 
the  rebels  until  they  gained  a  position  which  commanded 
the  Kaiser  Bagh. 

The  engineers  wanted  to  stop  the  advance  of  the 
troops  ;  but  this  was  easier  to  say  than  to  do.  The  Sikhs 
of  Brasyer's  regiment  were  almost  uncontrollable.  They 
climbed  through  an  embrasure  into  a  bastion,  and  then 
made  their  way  into  a  court-yard  close  to  the  Kaiser  Bagh. 
The  Tenth  Foot  advanced,  and  turned  the  third  line  of 
the  defence  by  passing  through  the  bazaars  in  the  rear  of 
the  Tara  Kothi.  Re-inforcements  were  sent  for,  and  Gen. 
Franks  advanced  immediately  with  all  the  men  he  could 


LUCKNOW  AND    CAWNPORE.  1 75 

muster.  An  important  question  was  at  issue  whether  it 
would  be  safe,  with  all  the  advantages  then  gained,  to 
storm  the  Kaiser  Bagh,  or  wait  until  the  batteries  had 
forced  a  breach.  The  intention  was  on  that  morning, 
March  14th,  only  to  attack  the  Imambara;  but  the  im- 
petuosity of  the  troops  and  the  feeble  defence  of  the 
sepoys  had  not  been  counted  on.  Considering  all  the 
circumstances,  and  that  the  rebels  seemed  to  have  been 
overcome  by  panic,  it  was  considered  advisable  to  push 
on  while  the  defenders  were  still  disordered,  and  the 
storming  forces  were  still  enthusiastic  for  the  advance. 
Franks  and  Napier,  after  weighing  all  the  conditions  of 
the  situation,  decided  to  advance.  They  asked  for  rein- 
forcements, which  were  not  long  in  coming  up,  the  troops 
on  the  right  advancing  and  occupying  the  Moti  Mahal 
with  very  little  resistance.  At  the  same  time  Franks 
pushed  his  column  through  the  court-yard  of  Sadat  All's 
Mosque  directly  into  the  Kaiser  Bagh,  which  is  a  rectan- 
gular palace  about  400  yards  square.  The  enclosure  in- 
cludes a  series  of  gardens  and  courts,  through  which 
marble  summer-houses  are  scattered.  The  whole  place 
swarmed  with  sepoys,  who  poured  a  heavy  musketry  fire 
on  the  British,  not  only  from  the  summer-houses  and 
various  parts  of  the  palace,  but  from  the  roofs  of  the 
neighboring  dwellings. 

But  the  British  having  gained  a  footing  in  the  garden, 
the  cause  of  the  rebels  was  hopeless.  The  Kaiser  Bagh 
was  captured  with  a  great  slaughter  of  the  insurgents  who 
defended  it.  One  historian  of  the  Indian  mutiny  says 
that  after  the  massacre  at  Cawnpore  the  soldiers  divided 
among  them  the  tresses  of  a  murdered  girl,  and  swore 
that  for  every  hair  of  her  head  one  sepoy  should  die.  As 
far  as  possible  they  kept  their  word.  In  Sir  Colin  Camp- 
bell's relief  of  Lucknow  and  in  the  siege  which  has  just 
been  described,  no  quarter  was  given.  If  any  fallen 
sepoy  ventured  to  ask  it,  "  Cawnpore  !  "   was  hissed  in  his 


1/6  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

ear  and  the  word  was  accompanied  or   instantly  followed 
by  a  shot  or  the  thrust  of  a  bayonet. 

The  siege  and  fall  of  Lucknow  formed  the  prelude  to 
the  end  of  the  rebellion.  There  was  considerable  fighting 
in  various  parts  of  India  during  1858  and  early  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  but  the  battles  were  of  no  great  moment 
and  an  almost  continuous  series  of  defeats  for  the  rebels. 
In  the  autumn  of  1858  the  rule  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany came  to  an  end,  after  an  existence  of  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  and  the  control  of  the  Indian 
empire  passed  to  the  British  government. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

CAPTURE   OF    THE   PEIHO   FORTS    AND     PEKIN — 1858-60. 

The  empire  of  China  claims  an  antiquity  of  about  five 
thousand  years,  but  for  the  first  thousand  years  of  this 
period  its  history  is  of  a  mythical  character.  According 
to  its  chronology,  one  of  its  early  rulers  is  said  to  have 
reigned  one  hundred  and  fourteen  years,  and  another  is 
credited  with  the  conduct  of  affairs  for  one  hundred  and 
forty  years,  during  which  he  introduced  medical  science  and 
agriculture.  Through  many  dynasties  China  was  troubled 
with  external  and  internal  wars,  chiefly  the  latter,  but  in 
all  ages  down  to  the  present  she  maintained  her  seclusion 
from  the  rest  of  the  world.  In  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  Dutch  and  other  European  nations  endeavored  to 
gain  admission  to  the  country,  but  their  efforts  were  suc- 
cessfully resisted,  though  they  were  allowed  to  trade  un- 
der numerous  restrictions  in  the  waters  near  Canton. 
England,  Russia,  and  other  countries  sent  embassies  at 
different  times,  the  East  India  Company  had  a  trading 
concession,  but  all  attempts  at  oflficial  and  commercial 
intercourse  were  practically  unsuccessful.  About  1834 
began  the  opium  dispute,  which  led  to  troubles  between 
England  and  China.  These  troubles  grew  into  wars, 
which  resulted  unfavorably  to  the  Chinese,  and  led  to 
the  opening  of  various  ports,  not  only  for  commercial 
purposes,  but  for  the  permanent  residence  of  foreign 
merchants. 

By  the  treaty  of  Nankin  in  1843,  China  was  to  pay  to 

T77 


1/8  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

England  an  indemnity  of  $21,000,000  for  the  cost  of  the 
war ;  five  ports  were  thrown  open  for  commerce  and  resi- 
dence; Hong  Kong  became  British  soil;  and  there  was 
to  be  lasting  peace  and  friendship  between  the  two  em- 
pires. The  peace  lasted  until  1856,  when  the  seizure  of 
the  opium  smuggler  Arrozv,  by  the  Chinese,  led  to  dis- 
putes, and  the  disputes  into  another  war  which  lasted  for 
nearly  two  years.  It  ended  in  the  capture  of  Canton 
early  in  1858,  and  the  capture  of  the  Peiho  forts  a  few 
months  later,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Tien-Tsin, 
by  Lord  Elgin  on  the  part  of  England,  and  Baron  Gros 
on  that  of  France,  Commissioner  Keying  acting  for  the 
Emperor  of  China.  By  this  treaty  Pekin  was  to  be  open 
to  foreign  ambassadors,  there  should  be  freedom  of  trade 
throughout  the  empire  under  certain  restrictions  con- 
nected with  the  customs  duties,  Christianity  was  to  be 
tolerated,  the  expense  of  the  war  to  be  paid  by  China, 
the  tariff  to  be  revised,  and  the  term  "  barbarian  "  not  to 
be  applied  any  longer  to  Europeans. 

As  this  treaty  formed  the  practical  opening  to  the  rest 
of  the  world  of  the  great  empire  that  had  been  secluded 
for  fifty  centuries,  the  capture  of  the  Peiho  forts,  which 
led  to  the  treaty  of  Tien-Tsin,  is  worthy  of  a  place  among 
the  decisive  battles  of  the  century.  The  account  of  this 
event  is  derived  from  the  journals  of  Mr.  Oliphant,  the 
private  secretary  of  Lord  Elgin,  and  subsequently  the 
historian  of  the  embassy. 

On  his  way  northward  from  Canton  Lord  Elgin  stopped 
at  Shanghai,  where  he  sought  to  meet  the  governor  of 
that  city,  and  asked  that  a  letter  be  forwarded  to  the  im- 
perial government  at  Pekin.  The  governor  received  him 
outside  the  town  of  Soochow,  near  Shanghai.  That  high 
of^cial  took  the  letter,  which  he  read  in  the  street,  sur- 
rounded by  a  crowd  of  people,  who  looked  over  his  shoul- 
ders and  perused  the  document  at  the  same  time.  After 
the  reading  was  ended,  the  governor  politely  asked  the 


179 


l8o  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

British  ambassador  to  leave  the  town  immediately,  and 
also  to  prevent  any  members  of  his  party  from  walking 
through  the  streets.  In  due  course  of  time  a  reply  came 
to  the  letter.  It  was  from  Prime-Minister  Yuh,  signed  by 
the  Vermilion  Pencil  (Emperor).  The  substance  of  the 
reply  was,  that  in  the  first  place  the  British  ambassador 
should  go  straight  back  to  Canton,  as  that  was  the  only 
point  from  which  negotiations  could  be  received.  This  was 
not  the  kind  of  reply  Lord  Elgin  had  desired.  He  did 
not  wish  to  use  force  in  getting  near  the  imperial  throne, 
but  could  see  no  other  way  out  of  the  difficulty.  Accord- 
ingly he  determined  to  pass  the  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Peiho  River,  then  advance  to  Tien-Tsin,  and  make  another 
effort  to  communicate  with  the  imperial  government. 
The  representatives  of  the  other  powers  supported  him 
in  this  design,  particularly  the  Russian  minister.  Count 
Poutiatine,  who  thought  that  even  this  measure  would 
fail,  and  that  nothing  short  of  a  powerful  naval  and  mili- 
tary force  could  break  through  the  obstinacy  of  the 
emperor  and  those  who  surrounded  him. 

Light-draught  boats  were  ordered  up  and  the  fleet  pro- 
ceeded through  the  Yellow  Sea  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Peiho.  As  they  entered  the  Gulf  of  Pechele,  they  en- 
countered strong  gales,  which  turned  that  body  of  water 
into  a  substance  resembling  boiling  pea-soup.  Occasion- 
ally the  cold  gales  from  the  northeast  suddenly  ceased 
and  were  followed  with  hot  blasts  filled  with  impalpable 
sand  from  the  great  desert  of  Gobi.  Ten  fathoms  was 
found  to  be  the  average  depth  of  the  Gulf  of  Pechele. 
As  the  fleet  neared  the  coast  the  water  shoaled,  and  sud- 
denly the  leadsmen  announced  only  four  fathoms.  Im- 
mediately the  ships  were  brought  to  anchor. 

The  position  of  the  fleet  was  nearly  in  front  of  the  en- 
trance of  Peiho,  "  The  River  of  the  North."  A  bar 
extends  into  the  gulf  at  least  a  mile  from  the  mouth 
of  the  river.     This  bar  has  eleven  feet  of  water  uoon  it 


CAPTURE    OF  THE   PEIHO   FORTS  AND   PEKIiY.       l8l 

at  high  tide  ;  at  half  tide  it  protrudes  in  some  places, 
and  in  its  shallowest  places  is  not  over  two  feet  deep. 
The  bottom  is  smooth  and  hard,  and  appears  to  be  quite 
level.  The  channel  of  the  river  is  marked  by  stakes, 
from  which  the  fishermen  hang  bunches  of  nets.  The 
French,  Russian,  and  American  ships  anchored  close  in 
with  the  British  fleet,  and  the  question  arose  whether  the 
forts  would  permit  the  passage  of  the  Peiho  or  make  an 
attack  necessary.  Upon  a  general  consultation,  it  was 
decided  to  send  another  letter  to  the  Chinese  prime-min- 
ister, telling  him  that  four  plenipotentiaries  had  arrived 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho  and  desired  a  meeting  at 
Takoo,  either  on  land  or  on  shipboard.  It  was  further 
stated  that  they  would  allow  six  days  for  an  answer,  and 
if  no  answer  came  within  that  time,  they  would  regard 
themselves  at  liberty  to  take  whatever  action  they  pleased. 
Takoo  was  named  as  a  place  of  meeting  rather  than  Tien- 
Tsin  because  it  was  more  convenient,  not  being  so  far  in- 
land. 

The  four  plenipotentiaries  embarked  in  a  small  boat 
towed  by  a  steamer,  which  carried  them  across  the  bar. 
This  was  the  first  time  that  the  Northern  Chinese  had 
ever  seen  the  "  outside  barbarians "  advancing  up  their 
river.  Long  lines  of  people  stood  on  the  low  banks  of 
the  river,  manifesting  no  apparent  emotion,  and  evidently 
actuated  only  by  curiosity.  As  the  steamer  and  the  boat 
in  tow  advanced  up  the  river,  they  met  a  junk  bearing  a 
mandarin  of  the  rank  of  the  Transparent  Blue  Button. 
He  ordered  the  boat  to  return  immediately,  but  promised 
to  be  responsible  for  the  safe  transport  and  delivery  of 
the  letter.  The  interview  with  the  mandarin  enabled  the 
officers  on  the  steamer  to  obtain  a  good  view  of  the  forts. 
As  near  as  they  could  discover,  there  were  about  fifty 
pieces  of  cannon  posted  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  most 
of  them  of  iron,  the  rest  of  brass,  and  some  of  a  very  great 
calibre.     On  the  left  bank  of  the  river  the  forts  seemed  to 


I82 


DECISIVE   BATTIES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 


be  nothing  but  heaps  of  mud.  They  had  ramparts  only- 
en  the  river  side,  their  rear  being  quite  unprotected,  and 
therefore  open  to  assault  from  that  direction.  All  the 
forts  were  covered  with  banners,  these  banners  being  of  a 
triangular  shape  with  serrated  edges,  and  white  spots  on 
a  blue  or  yellow  ground.  As  a  result  of  the  reconnoi- 
tring, it  was  found  that  there  were  three  forts  on  the  south 
bank  and  two  on  the  north,  connected  by  a  line  of  mud 
batteries,  and  in  many  instances  half  buried  beneath  the 
flags  that  waved  over  the  parapets  and  embrasures.  The 
foreign  fleet  which  lay  outside  the  mouth  of  the  river  in- 
cluded thirty  vessels  as  follows  : 


English. 

Guns 

84 
40 
8 
6 
6 
6 
8 
5 
5 
3 
3 
3 
3 
5 

Men 

Ves'ls 

Calcutta, 

Pique, 

Furious,  paddle-steamer, 

Nimrod,  despatch  Govt,  vessel. 

Cormorant, 

Surprise, 

Fury, 

Slaney,  gunboat, 

Leven, 

Bustard, 

Oppossum, 

Staunch, 

Firm, 

Coromandel, 

Hesper,  storeship. 

700 

270 

220 

120 

98 

160 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

45 

French, 

(  Minnesota 
American  -  Mississippi 

(  Antelope 
Russian, 

English, 

II 

3 

I 

15 

15 

15  Vessels. 

1909 

Total, 

30 

The  answer  to  the  letter  was  duly  received  and  was 
quite  in  the  vein  that  had  been  expected.  Tan,  the  High 
Commissioner,  evidently  intended  to  negotiate  without 
full  powers  to  do  so.  Then  the  plenipotentiaries  sent  an 
ultimatum  demanding  that  a  commissioner  with  full  pow- 
ers should  be  sent,  and  positively  stating  that  no  others 
would  be  received.  The  limit  of  time  for  their  recep- 
tion   was  fixed   for    May   19th,  and  in   case  the  Chinese 


1 84  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

should  decline  the  British  offer  of  occupying  the  forts 
temporarily,  force  would  be  employed  to  take  possession 
of  them.  To  this  letter  no  reply  was  received,  and  ac- 
cordingly the  ships  made  ready  to  act. 

At  ten  o'clock  in  the  forenoon  of  May  20th,  the  signal 
was  displayed  for  the  ships  to  move  into  position.  The 
Cormorant,  Mitraille  and  Fusee  had  been  assigned  to 
assail  the  two  forts  on  the  northern  bank,  while  the  Nim- 
rod,  Avalanche,  and  Dragonne  were  to  attack  the  three 
forts  on  the  southern  bank  and  their  connecting  line  of 
mud  batteries.  The  scene  just  before  the  signal  of  attack 
was  hoisted,  was  an  animated  one.  The  Cormorant  was 
the  ship  farthest  in  advance  up  the  river,  where  she  lay 
impatiently  letting  off  little  puffs  of  steam  as  she  stood  in 
readiness  to  dash  through  the  bamboo  barrier,  which  the 
Chinese  had  stretched  across  the  river,  and  face  the  line 
of  fire  of  the  forts  to  which  she  would  be  exposed  before 
reaching  her  position.  The  Nimrod  •ws.s  close  behind  the 
Cor7norant ,  with  her  decks  clear  for  action,  all  the  men 
at  their  posts  and  every  thing  ready  for  active  work. 
The  English  and  French  gunboats  were  at  some  distance 
behind  the  Nimrod,  and  their  decks  were  crowded  with 
men. 

Hardly  had  the  signal  flag  touched  the  truck  of  the 
Slaney  before  the  engines  of  the  Cormorant  were  in  mo- 
tion and  she  started  off  to  her  destination,  her  men  lying 
flat  on  the  deck  and  only  her  commander  and  two  or 
three  officers  visible.  Scarcely  was  she  under  way  before 
there  was  a  puff  of  smoke  at  one  of  the  ports  and  a  round 
shot  came  whistling  close  to  the  steamer.  This  shot  was 
followed  by  another  and  another,  and  in  a  few  moments 
all  three  of  the  southern  forts  were  firing  at  her  with  all 
their  guns.  The  Cormora?it  did  not  reply.  Suddenly 
there  was  a  shock  ;  the  course  of  the  vessel  was  partially 
stopped,  then  she  went  on  ahead  again  and,  with  a  little 
struggle,  broke  the  barrier,  which  consisted  of  five  seven- 


CAFTUKE    OF  THE   FEIHO   FORTS  AiVD   FEKIN.       1 85 

incli  cables  of  bamboo  that  were  buoyed  from  one  side  of 
the  river  to  the  other.  There  was  nothing  now  to  pre- 
vent her  going  into  position.  She  fired  a  single'  gun 
at  the  batteries  on  the  south  bank,  evidently  desiring  to 
recognize  the  courtesy  they  had  shown  her,  and  then  con- 
centrated the  force  of  her  batteries  on  the  northern  forts, 
which  she  completely  silenced  in  less  than  twenty  minutes. 
Just  as  she  had  finished  her  work,  two  other  French  boats 
came  up  to  assist  her,  but  their  help  was  not  needed. 

In  the  meanwhile,  the  Nhnrod  had  followed  close  after 
the  Cormorant,  and  opened  a  furious  fire  on  the  forts  on 
the  southern  bank.  Owing  to  her  position  she  began  her 
work  before  the  Cormorant  reached  the  duty  assigned  to 
her,  and  the  Nimrod  no  doubt  saved  the  Cornwra^it  from 
several  shots  by  drawing  them  in  her  own  direction.  For 
fully  fifteen  minutes  these  two  steamers  were  engaging 
all  the  forts  on  the  southern  bank  without  any  assistance. 
Very  soon  however,  the  four  French  gunboats  came  up, 
two  of  them  instructed  to  support  the  Cormorant  and  the 
other  two  the  Dragonnc  and  the  Avalanche.  They  were 
considerably  hindered  by  the  strong  tide  which  was  then 
running  and  by  the  sinuosities  of  the  channel.  The  power 
of  these  boats  was  not  sufificicnt  for  such  work  and  they 
were  decidedly  clumsy  in  their  movements,  but  as  soon  as 
they  were  in  position  they  fired  away  very  accurately  at 
the  forts.  For  fully  an  hour  the  Chinese  retained  their 
positions  at  their  guns,  better  than  the  English  ofificers 
had  expected  they  would.  Though  not  deficient  in 
bravery,  they  were  not  skilled  in  artillery  practice,  as 
nearly  all  their  shots  passed  high  above  the  assailing  ships. 
The  French  boats  lost  four  ofificers  killed  and  two  men, 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  officers  on  the  bridge  or 
poop  of  the  boat  were  more  exposed  than  the  men.  The 
practice  of  the  Chinese  gunners  does  not  make  it  easy  to 
silence  a  battery.  It  is  their  habit  after  discharging  a  gun 
to  retire  into  a  bomb  proof  and  await  the  enemy's  return 


1 86  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

shot ;  when  this  is  given,  they  wait  a  few  moments,  then 
creep  out  as  stealthily  as  possible,  load  and  fire  the  gun 
with(5ut  exposing  themselves,  and  then  run  back  to  the 
bomb  proofs.  Of  course,  artillery  practice  of  this  kind  is 
very  slow,  but  as  the  Peiho  batteries  had  nearly  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  guns  in  position,  they  could  do  a  good  deal 
of  shooting  when  taken  in  the  aggregate. 

About  an  hour  before  noon  the  admirals,  followed  by 
their  gunboats,  advanced  up  the  river.  The  Chinese  gave 
them  a  liberal  number  of  shots  on  the  way;  but  very  few 
struck  the  vessels.  The  attention  of  the  forts  was  drawn 
toward  the  fleet  scattered  along  the  river,  and  the  garrison 
seemed  totally  unaware  that  the  storming  parties  were 
landing  just  above  the  line  of  forts,  partially  concealed  by 
the  gunboats  and  smaller  craft  grouped  together.  They 
were  not  aware  that  it  was  the  custom  of  European  sol- 
diers to  take  batteries  by  assault,  but  supposed  that  a 
battery  was  to  be  fired  upon  only  on  its  front,  where  it 
was  best  prepared  to  resist  attack.  To  all  appearances 
they  were  completely  surprised  at  the  manoeuvre  of  the 
outside  barbarians,  and  as  the  distance  was  very  small,  the 
men  were  inside  the  forts  in  a  very  short  time.  As  the 
leaders  of  the  storming  party  sprang  into  the  battery 
there  seemed  to  be  a  panic  among  all  the  defenders, 
and  a  wild  rush  for  safety  followed  immediately.  The 
storming  parties  chased  the  fleeing  Chinese ;  but  the 
latter  were  too  swift  for  them  ;  terror  added  wings  to 
their  flight,  and  in  a  few  minutes  not  a  Chinese  soldier  was 
to  be  seen.  Occasionally  some  of  them  halted  as  if  to 
show  fight,  but  the  gleam  of  the  English  sabres  made 
their  hearts  sink,  and  they  renewed  their  flight  with 
greater  precipitation  than  before. 

Less  than  fifteen  minutes  after  the  first  sailors  and 
marines  landed,  the  whole  garrison  of  the  forts  was  dis- 
persed. Their  loss  was  not  very  great ;  they  fled  so 
quickly  that  there  was  little  chance  to  harm  any  of  them 


CAPTURE   OF  THE   PEIHO   FORTS  AND   PER' IN.       1 8/ 

Once  inside  the  batteries  the  ofificers  perceived  how  com- 
pletely the  whole  garrison  might  have  been  taken  in  a 
trap,  from  which  not  a  single  man  could  have  escaped.  If 
a  reasonable  force  had  been  sent  around  to  the  villase  of 
Takoo,  the  forts  would  have  been  completely  under  the 
control  of  the  invaders.  A  little  farther  away  there  were 
two  entrenched  camps,  defended  by  some  guns  in  posi- 
tion, and  also  by  a  small  force  of  cavalry.  These  camps 
were  flanked  by  the  storming  party,  and  their  occupants 
were  immediately  seized  with  the  same  panic  that  had 
caused  the  garrison  to  flee  so  hastily.  The  artillery 
found  in  the  camps  included  four  brass  cannon  {6%- 
pounders),  ten  or  twelve  iron  guns,  and  some  twenty-five 
6-pounder  light  guns.  Each  battery  was  served  and  sup- 
ported by  not  less  than  i  ,ooo  men.  There  were  many  tents 
and  a  good  deal  of  camp  equipage  inside  the  entrenchment ; 
but  there  was  not  much  that  was  worth  carrying  away. 

The  Chinese  government  has  a  summary  way  of  deal- 
ing with  its  representatives  who  do  not  succeed  in  the 
work  assigned  to  them.  This  was  the  fate  of  the  unfor- 
tunate Tan,  the  Imperial  Commissioner,  who  had  been 
instructed  to  drive  out  the  barbarians  and  send  them  to 
their  homes,  or,  at  least,  to  Canton.  A  few  days  later  the 
Pekin  Gazette  announced  in  the  following  terms  the  pun- 
ishment of  this  unfortunate  ofBcial : 

"  Whereas,  Tan-Ting-Siang,  already  degraded  from  the 
ofBce  of  Governor-General  of  Chih-Li,  has  been  found  not 
guilty  of  cowardice  and  desertion,  but  in  that  his  opera- 
tions were  without  plan  or  resource,  his  offence  is  not  the 
less  without  excuse.  Let  him  be  banished  to  the  frontier 
(confines  of  Siberia),  there  to  redeem  his  guilt  by  his 
exertions." 

The  2 1st  of  May  was  devoted  to  resting  the  men  and 
to  an  inspection  of  the  Chinese  works  and  the  villages 
near  them.  On  the  22d  the  fleet  moved  up  the  river,  the 
allied  admirals  taking  the  lead  and   the  plenipotentiaries 


l88  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

remaining  behind  in  consequence  of  Lord  Elgin's  fear 
that  the  presence  of  the  diplomats  might  complicate  mat- 
ters in  case  the  admirals  were  obliged  to  use  force  in 
reaching  Tien-Tsin.  The  river  was  crowded  with  junks, 
and  the  steamers  had  some  difificulty  in  forcing  their  way 
through  this  floating  barrier,  but  they  managed  to  do  so 
without  accident.  After  a  few  miles,  a  line  of  junks  was 
found  stretching  across  the  river  and  forming  a  regular 
barrier  which  it  did  not  take  long  to  remove.  Other  bar- 
riers of  the  same  sort  were  encountered,  and  small  groups 
of  cavalry  came  down  to  observe  the  strange  vessels  pro- 
pelled by  steam,  which  for  the  first  time  were  making 
the  ascent  of  the  Peiho.  When  fired  upon  the  cavalr}' 
invariably  scampered  away ;  no  forts  were  visible  on  this 
part  of  the  river,  and  the  people  did  not  seem  inclined  to 
show  any  hostility. 

On  learning  of  the  arrival  of  the  allied  fleet  at  Tien-Tsin 
the  Pekin  government  at  once  determined  to  send  ambas- 
sadors to  treat  for  peace,  and  on  the  29th  May  the  pleni- 
potentiaries, French  and  English,  started  from  Takoo  to 
Tien-Tsin  where  they  were  to  meet  the  Chinese  represen- 
tative. The  negotiations  consumed  a  month,  the  Chinese 
using  every  artifice  to  secure  delay  and  modify  the  condi- 
tion which  the  foreigners  were  forcing  upon  them,  while 
the  latter,  knowing  their  strength,  were  disinclined  to  re- 
cede from  their  demands.  The  Chinese  commissioner, 
Keying,  said  that  the  foreigners  were  holding  a  knife  at 
the  throat  of  China  and  compelling  her  to  do  something 
that  was  totally  foreign  to  her  wishes.  While  the  ambas- 
sadors would  not  admit  the  truth  of  this  assertion,  they 
could  hardly  deny  the  fact  except  in  a  diplomatic  sense. 
Lord  Elgin's  diary  shows  that  his  private  opinion  on  this 
subject  was  materially  different  from  the  one  he  professed 
in  public.  Personally  he  had  a  great  deal  of  sympathy  for 
the  Chinese,  but  ofificially  he  could  do  nothing  else  than 
carry  out  the  orders  of  his  sovereign. 


leSCJ 


igO  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

After  the  signing  of  the  treaty  the  allies  left  Tien-Tsin 
and  proceeded  down  the  river,  greatly  to  the  delight  of  the 
imperial  government,  who  feared  that  the  ambassadors 
would  demand  permission  to  visit  Pekin  and  have  a  per- 
sonal audience  with  the  emperor.  The  ratification  of  the 
treaty  was  delayed  on  various  pretexts,  and  in  a  general 
way  matters  did  not  run  smoothly.  In  June,  1859,  ^'"• 
Bruce,  the  British  envoy,  was  stopped  in  the  Peiho  River 
while  on  his  way  to  Pekin.  Admiral  Hope  attempted 
to  force  a  passage,  but  was  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  81  killed 
and  about  400  wounded.  The  emperor  had  decided  to 
repudiate  the  treaty  made  with  Lord  Elgin  the  previous 
year,  and  the  forts  had  been  put  in  a  stronger  condition 
than  ever  before. 

Mr.  Bruce  proceeded  to  Shanghai  and  waited  instruc- 
tions; the  French  minister  did  likewise,  but  the  American 
representative  went  to  Pekin  by  a  route  indicated  by  the 
Chinese  commissioners;  his  reception  was  unsatisfactory, 
as  he  refused  to  prostrate  himself  before  the  emperor,  and 
was  therefore  denied  the  privilege  of  seeing  his  Majesty. 
Matters  assumed  a  warlike  phase;  the  British  and  French 
ministers  were  instructed  by  their  governments  to  demand 
an  apology  for  the  occurrences  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pei- 
ho, to  receive  any  friendly  messages  in  a  conciliatory 
spirit,  to  decline  any  ceremonial  unless  it  recognized  the 
equality  of  the  governments,  and  to  further  inform  the 
Chinese  government  that  force  would  be  used  if  necessary 
to  secure  acceptance  of  the  terms  proposed. 

The  ultimata  of  the  two  governments  were  delivered  to 
the  Chinese  government  in  March,  i860,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing month  a  reply  was  received  definitely  refusing  the  de- 
mands of  the  English  and  French.  Diplomacy  having  ex- 
hausted itself  nothing  remained,  but  force.  Lord  Elgin  and 
Baron  Gros  arrived  at  Shanghai  in  June  ;  a  military  and  na- 
val force  was  formed  for  the  purpose  of  moving  on  Pekin, 
and  by  the  end  of  July  every  thing  was  ready.  On  the  first 


CAPTURE    OF  THE   PEIHO   FORTS  AND   PEKIN.       I9I 

day  of  August  a  land  force  of  five  thousand  men  was 
landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pehtang,  a  small  stream  which 
reaches  the  sea  about  ten  miles  north  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Peiho.  The  forts  of  the  latter  river  had  been  greatly- 
strengthened  in  the  expectation  that  the  foreigners  would 
seek  an  entrance  by  the  river  as  in  1858  and  1859.  Peh- 
tang was  found  to  be  deserted,  and  consequently  the 
troops  landed  without  opposition.  Reinforcements  ar- 
rived steadily  until  the  combined  strength  of  the  allies 
exceeded  20,000  men. 

Three  weeks  were  consumed  in  getting  ashore  all  the 
material  of  war,  provisions,  etc.,  and  making  every  thing 
ready  for  an  advance  into  the  interior.  The  forts  of  the 
Peiho  were  taken  in  the  rear  with  but  little  opposition, 
and  Tien-Tsin  was  occupied  on  the  24th,  under  similar 
circumstances.  The  Chinese  were  greatly  surprised  at  the 
failure  of  the  allies  to  walk  into  the  trap  that  had  been  set 
for  them,  and  some  of  their  generals  suggested  that  they 
had  not  been  fairly  treated. 

As  soon  as  the  allies  were  fairly  in  Tien-Tsin,  the 
Chinese  showed  a  disposition  to  negotiate.  Commission- 
ers appeared  from  Pekin  and  said  they  had  full  power  to 
make  terms  of  peace  ;  negotiations  began  and  a  treaty  was 
drawn,  but  when  it  was  nearly  ready  for  signatures  the 
commissioners  said  they  could  not  stipulate  that  it  would 
be  carried  out  unless  it  was  ratified  before  signing.  This 
very  unusual  proceeding  convinced  the  English  and 
French  ambassadors  that  the  Chinese  were  insincere  in 
their  pretensions  and  only  seeking  to  gain  time.  Accord- 
ingly the  order  was  given  to  march  on  Pekin,  and  very 
speedily  the  army  was  in  motion.  Small  bodies  of  Tartar 
cavalry  harassed  the  troops  at  various  times,  but  practi- 
cally there  was  little  opposition  and  only  trifling,  loss  of 
life  or  blood.  While  the  army  was  in  motion,  new  pro- 
posals came  from  Pekin,  and  it  was  finally  agreed  that  the 
army   should  halt    at  Tungchow,  twelve  miles  from  the 


192  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

capital,  and  there  wait  the  arrival  of  commissioners  who 
should  have  full  power  to  negotiate  without  hindrance. 

To  make  arrangements  for  the  reception  of  the  am- 
bassadors at  Tungchow,  gain  a  camping-place,  and 
negotiate  for  provisions,  the  British  consul,  Mr.  Parkes, 
(afterwards  Sir  Harry  Parkes),  ^\■ith  23  others,  went  forward 
on  the  2 1st  of  September,  under  a  flag  of  truce,  but  soon 
after  they  had  passed  the  British  lines  they  were  seized 
as  prisoners,  thrown  into  a  filthy  prison,  and  afterwards 
carrried  in  cages  to  Pekin,  where  they  were  shown  to  the 
populace  by  whom  they  were  treated  with  the  greatest 
indignity.  Two  of  the  party,  Captain  Brabazon.  and 
Abbe  De  Luc  were  beheaded  and  their  bodies  were 
thrown  into  the  canal ;  eleven  others  were  either  killed  or 
died  from  the  effects  of  the  treatment  they  received. 
Those  who  survived  were  frequently  at  the  point  of  death 
by  starvation  or  cruelty,  and  none  of  them  ever  expected 
to  see  their  friends  again. 

In  consequence  of  the  treacherous  seizure  of  Mr.  Parkes 
and  his  party,  the  allies  marched  directly  upon  Pekin  ;  they 
were  resisted  by  the  Chinese,  and  the  resistance  followed  so 
closely  upon  the  violation  of  the  flag  of  truce  as  to  leave 
no  room  for  doubt  of  the  faithlessness  of  the  Pekin  gov- 
ernment. A  battle  ensued  in  which  the  Chinese  were 
completely  routed,  and  then  came  another  proposal  to 
halt  to  which  no  attention  was  given. 

On  Friday,  October  5th,  the  English  forces  arrived  at 
the  brick  kilns,  about  three  miles  from  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  walls  of  Pekin,  and  there  went  into  camp. 
At  daybreak,  on  the  morning  of  the  6th,  the  advance  was 
renewed.  Information  had  reached  Sir  Hope  Grant,  the 
commander,  that  a  large  Tartar  army  was  encamped  near 
the  city,  and  had  a  strong  defensive  position  quite  close 
to  the  walls.  Sir  Hope  consequently  made  a  sweep  to 
the  right,  thus  moving  towards  the  city  from  the  north, 
in  order  to  flank  any  works  which  might  be  in  that  locali. 


CAPTURE    OF  THE  PEIIIO   FOKTS  AXD   PEKIN.       1 93 

ty.  Although  the  precaution  was  an  excellent  one,  it 
turnd  out  that  there  was  no  occasion  for  it. 

After  a  march  of  not  far  from  two  miles,  the  army 
came  to  a  halt  in  a  level  plain  which  was  quite  open — in 
fact,  more  so  than  the  rest  of  the  region  round  about,  on 
which  there  are  many  clumps  and  clusters  of  trees. 
Looking  out  for  the  tallest  brick  kiln,  the  general  climbed 
it,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  character  of  the  plain,  and 
possibly  get  a  sight  of  the  Tartar  arm}',  which  had  not 
yet  made  its  appearance,  not  even  by  a  skirmishing  line. 
The  French  army  was  on  the  left  of  the  rear  of  the  Eng- 
lish, while  the  cavalry,  with  the  single  exception  of  a 
squadron  of  Dragoon  Guards,  was  on  the  right  flank.  The 
roads  were  narrow  and  quite  deeply  sunken.  They  were 
fairly  passable  for  cavalry  and  infantry,  but  abominable  for 
any  thing  with  wheels.  Had  the  Chinese  chosen  to  oppose 
the  advance,  they  could  have  given  a  great  deal  of  trouble. 
The  sunken  character  of  the  roads  would  have  made  it 
very  difficult  for  troops  to  manoeuvre,  and  furthermore, 
the  numerous  clumps  of  trees  and  the  thick  brushwood 
would  have  furnished  concealment  for  skirmishers,  even 
had  they  been  armed  with  nothing  better  than  the  Chinese 
match-locks.  A  careful  watch  was  kept,  and  occasionally  it 
was  whispered  along  the  line  that  the  Chinese  were  drawn 
up  in  front,  and  a  battle  was  near  at  hand.  After  a  time 
the  rumor  proved  to  be  correct,  as  a  line  of  Tartar  troops 
really  appeared  in  front  of  the  advancing  column.  The  60th 
Rifles  were  deployed  into  a  skirmishing  line  in  the  hope 
of  outflanking  the  Tartars,  but  the  deploj'ment  had  not 
been  completed  before  the  brave  defenders  of  their  coun- 
try disappeared  as  though  they  had  melted  into  thin  air. 

During  the  time  the  English  were  advancing  upon  the 
city  the  French  were  at  the  famous  summer  palace,  Yuen- 
Min-Yuen,  about  six  miles  away,  which  they  reached  by  a 
flanking  movement  in  the  rear  of  the  English.  The  latter 
continued    their   advance   towards    the   city,    while    the 


194  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

French  were  making  themselves  at  home  in  the  summer 
palace.  The  English  came  in  sight  of  Pekin  when  not 
more  than  a  half  a  mile  from  it.  A  long  street  shaded  by 
trees  led  from  the  suburb  directly  to  one  of  the  gates. 
At  the  entrance  to  the  long  street  there  was  a  large  Bud- 
dhist temple,  and  around  it  was  a  strong  wall  at  least 
twelve  feet  high,  and  easily  capable  of  defence.  The  gates 
were  closed  and  barred  on  the  inside.  No  one  appeared 
to  open  them  ;  but  a  beam  of  timber  was  brought  forward 
and  used  as  a  battering-ram  until  the  bars  gave  way. 
There  was  no  opposition  to  the  entrance  of  the  English. 
Not  a  single  Chinese  soldier  was  in  sight.  Lord  Elgin, 
and  his  staff,  and  Sir  Hope  Grant,  also  accompanied  by 
liis  staff,  made  this  gate  their  head-quarters.  The  artillery 
head-quarters  were  outside  of  the  gate,  and  the  artillery 
was  parked  close  up  in  order  to  be  in  readiness  on  short 
notice  when  it  was  wanted.  General  Grant  changed  his 
head-quarters  into  a  temple  near  by,  leaving  Lord  Elgin 
and  his  staff  in  sole  possession  of  the  gate.  The  "  Queen's 
Own  "  regiment  was  ordered  to  a  position  half  way  to 
the  city  gate,  on  the  right  of  the  street,  and  close  to  Sir 
Robert  Napier.  The  Fifteenth  Punjaubee  was  a  little 
farther  forward  on  the  same  street,  and  the  Eighth  held 
the  position  of  rear  guard. 

Preparations  were  made  for  an  assault  upon  Pekin  in 
case  it  should  be  necessary  to  make  one,  in  order  to  ob- 
tain possession  of  the  gate  which  had  been  demanded. 
On  the  left  front  of  the  allied  position  there  was  a  broad 
open  plain,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  square,  which  was  ordi- 
narily used  as  a  parade  ground  for  the  Tartar  army. 
Looking  towards  the  city  on  the  right  this  plain  was  bor- 
dered by  a  broad  road  which  led  to  the  North  or  Anting 
Gate.  This  was  the  gate  of  which  the  allies  demanded 
possession.  Farther  on,  and  to  the  left  of  the  suburb, 
was  the  magnificent  Temple  of  the  Earth,  surrounded  by 
a  strong  wall  eighteen  feet  high,  which  embraced  an  en- 


CAPrUKE    OF  THE  PEIHO   FORTS  AND   PEKIN.       1 95 

closure  fully  a  quarter  of  a  mile  square.  The  siege  guns 
were  immediately  brought  up  to  this  temple.  This  place 
was  about  three  hundred  yards  from  the  great  wall  of  the 
city,  an  admirable  position  for  making  a  breach  in  case  of 
necessity.  Work  was  pushed  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and 
the  battery  was  completed  in  a  few  days.  When  every 
thing  was  ready  a  proclamation  was  issued,  in  which  the 
allies  threatened  to  shell  the  city  unless  the  Chinese 
surrendered  the  Anting  Gate  within  twenty-four  hours. 
According  to  their  custom,  when  the  pressure  is  so  great 
that  resistance  is  no  longer  possible,  the  Chinese  surren- 
dered. The  proclamation  was  issued  on  the  12th  of 
November,  and  on  the  13th  the  gate  was  given  up,  and 
the  British  colors  were  hoisted  above  it. 

While  the  English  were  securing  the  northern  gate  of 
the  city  and  preparing  for  an  assault,  the  French  were  in 
possession  of  the  summer  palace  of  Yuen-Min-Yuen, 
about  six  miles  from  Pekin.  Mr.  Parkes  and  some  of  his 
companions  were  restored  to  the  British  on  the  6th  Octo- 
ber, under  the  impression  that  their  return  would  induce 
the  hostile  forces  to  retire,  at  least  to  Tungchow.  The 
ambassadors  decided  that  the  destruction  of  the  summer 
palace,  while  it  would  do  little  harm  to  the  people,  would 
be  a  severe  blow  to  the  emperor  and  government,  and 
that  nothing  else  they  could  do  would  be  so  effectual  in 
humbling  Chinese  pride.  Accordingly  the  order  was  given, 
and  on  the  i8th  October  the  palace,  with  all  its  vast 
series  of  outbuildings,  was  destroyed  by  fire,  after  being 
thoroughly  looted  by  the  French  and  English  soldiers. 
The  French  had  by  far  the  best  of  the  looting,  as  they 
were  at  the  palace  for  several  days  before  the  English 
joined  them.  The  destruction  of  the  palace  has  been 
severely  criticised  ;  but  there  is  certainly  excellent  foun- 
dation for  the  argument  of  the  ambassadors.  The  Chinese 
were  directly  informed  that  the  destruction  was  in  retalia- 
tion  for  the   murder  of  the  prisoners  who  had   been  so 


196  DECISIVE   BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

treacherously  taken  while  under  a  flag  of  truce.  The 
bodies  of  two  of  these  victims  of  treachery,  Mr.  De  Nor- 
man and  Mr.  Bowlby,  were  buried  with  solemn  services 
in  the  Russian  cemetery  at  Pekin  on  the  day  before  the 
destruction  of  Yuen-Min-Yuen. 

Before  the  capture  of  the  city  the  emperor  fled  to  Mon- 
golia, and  left  his  brother.  Prince  Kung,  to  make  terms 
with  the  invaders.  The  prince  was  very  reluctant  to  ac 
cept  the  terms  offered  by  the  ambassadors,  and  only 
yielded  when  they  threatened  to  destroy  the  city.  One 
gate  was  placed  in  the  possession  of  the  English,  and  an- 
other in  the  hands  of  the  French,  and  the  prince  was 
plainly  told  that  he  must  come  to  a  decision  at  once. 
Under  this  pressure  he  ratified  the  treaty  of  Tien-Tsin, 
which  had  been  extorted  two  years  before  at  the  muzzle 
of  the  allied  cannon,  and  signed  a  new  treaty,  in  which 
there  were  additional  humiliations  for  his  country.  The 
emperor  expressed  his  regret  at  the  occurrence  at  the 
Peiho  forts;  the  right  of  England  to  keep  a  resident 
minister  at  Pekin  was  acknowledged  ;  the  Chinese  paid 
an  indemnity  of  $15,000,000,  and  promised  to  keep  the 
peace  faithfully  in  the  future  ;  Tien-Tsin  was  opened  to 
trade ;  Chinese  were  allowed  freely  to  emigrate  to  the 
British  colonies;  Kowloon,  opposite  Hong  Kong,  was 
ceded  to  the  British ;  and  the  immediate  operation  of  the 
treaty  and  convention  was  provided  for. 

Since  March,  1861,  Pekin  has  been  the  residence  of  the 
foreign  ministers ;  embassies  have  been  sent  to  foreign 
powers ;  and  the  empire  so  long  secluded  from  the  rest  of 
the  world  has  been  open  to  the  visits  of  foreigners  whether 
in  prosecution  of  commercial  enterprises  or  in  search  of 
health  or  pleasure.  China  has  adopted  many  foreign  in- 
ventions and  adapted  them  to  her  own  use,  and  though 
still  conservative  she  is  no  longer  isolated.  The  end  of  her 
isolation  may  be  fairly  dated  from  the  passage  of  the  Peiho 
forts  in  1858  and  the  capture  of  Pekin  two  years  later. 


^^^^s 

CHAPTER  XII. 


BATTLE    O?^    SOLFERINO — 1 859. 


In  the  revolutions  which  blazed  over  Europe  in  1848, 
Charles  Albert,  King  of  Sardinia,  presented  himself  as 
the  champion  of  Italian  independence.  He  gave  military 
aid  to  the  insurgents  in  Lombardy,  Parma,  and  Piedmont, 
and  refused  offers  of  assistance  from  the  French  with  the 
reply  that  Italy  would  help  herself.  At  first  he  was  suc- 
cessful and  defeated  the  Austrians  on  the  fields  of  Pas- 
trenga  and  Goito,  but  later  he  was  defeated  at  Custozza, 
and  forced  into  full  retreat  ;  his  reverses  resulted  in  an 
armistice,  and  on  its  expiration  he  renewed  hostilities,  re- 
lying on  the  simultaneous  attack  of  the  Hungarians  upon 
the  Austrians.  On  the  23d  March,  1849,  ^^  ^^^s  utterly 
defeated  at  Novara,  and  the  Austrian  rule  upon  Italy  was 
confirmed  and  made  stronger  than  ever  before.  The  hope 
which  Italy  had  based  upon  his  efforts  was  utterly  lost  , 
Charles  Albert  surrendered  the  crown  to  his  son,  Victor 
Emanuel  II.,  and  retired  to  Oporto,  where  he  died  four 
months  after  his  abdication. 

A  statesman  who  had  much  to  do  with  Sardinia's  decla- 
ration of  war  against  Austria  in  1848  and  '9,  was  Camilio 
Benso  Cavour,  better  known  as  Count  Cavour.  In  1850 
he  was  called  to  the  Cabinet  of  Victor  Emanuel,  and  two 
years  later  was  named  President  of  the  Council.  All  his 
energies  were  bent  in  the  direction  of  renewing  the  strug- 
gle with  Austria  in  the  hope  of  uniting  all  Italy  under 
the  rule  of    the   king   of  Sardinia.     By  joining    France, 

197 


198  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

Turkey,  and  England  in  the  war  against  Russia  in  1854, 
he  gave  Sardinia  a  place  among  the  nations,  and  made 
sure  that  she  would  be  represented  at  any  conference  to 
settle  upon  a  treaty  of  peace.  In  conjunction  with  the 
Marquis  Villamarina,  Count  Cavour  represented  Sardinia 
at  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  in  1856,  and  during  the  conference 
he  succeeded  in  winning  Louis  Napoleon  almost  complete- 
ly to  his  purposes.  In  consequence  of  Orsini's  attempt 
upon  the  life  of  the  Emperor  of  the  French,  Cavour 
caused  Sardinia  to  enact  a  special  law  against  "  suspects." 
The  passage  of  this  law  was  considered  indicative  of  the 
intimate  relations  existing  between  Sardinia  and  France  ; 
Austria  endeavored  to  create  a  better  feeling  for  herself 
by  a  series  of  liberal  measures  and  promises.  Events  in- 
dicated that  a  triple  alliance  against  Austria  was  being 
formed  by  Russia,  France,  and  Sardinia,  and  consequently 
there  was  much  uneasiness. 

On  New  Year's  Day,  1859,  '^^^^  foreign  ambassadors  in 
Paris  made  their  customary  calls  upon  the  emperor.  The 
latter  received  the  Austrian  representative  with  his  usual 
courtesy,  and  in  the  course  of  the  interview  said:  "  I  re- 
gret that  our  relations  with  your  government  are  not  as 
good  as  formerly,  but  I  beg  of  you  to  tell  the  emperor 
that  my  personal  sentiments  for  him  have  not  changed." 

These  few  words  caused  excitement  in  diplomatic  cir- 
cles all  over  Europe.  Austria  and  France  pushed  their 
preparations  for  war,  and  the  Emperor  of  Austria  replied 
to  Louis  Napoleon  in  much  the  same  terms  that  the  lat- 
ter had  used  on  New  Year's  Day  when  speaking  to  the 
Austrian  ambassador.  On  the  30th  of  January  Prince 
Napoleon  was  married  to  Princess  Clothilde  of  Sardinia, 
and  immediately  thereafter  the  Austrian  armies  in  Italy 
were  increased,  and  the  banks  of  the  Ticino,  the  boun- 
dary between  Sardinia  and  the  Italian  provinces  of  Aus- 
tria, were  fortified.  In  March  and  April  Sardinia  and 
France  prepared  for  war  ;  Russia  sought  to  intervene  and 


199 


200  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

proposed  a  Congress,  but  there  were  disputes  regarding 
the  admission  of  Sardinia  and  nothing  came  of  the  pro- 
posal. On  the  23d  April,  Austria  demanded  that  within 
three  days  Sardinia  should  disarm,  and  dismiss  the  volun- 
teers from  other  States ;  Sardinia  refused  on  the  26th, 
and  on  the  same  day  the  Austrians  crossed  the  Ticino. 
The  French  troops  which  had  been  massing  on  the  fron- 
tier entered  Piedmont  on  the  27th  April,  and  on  the  8th 
of  May  Napoleon  III.  made  formal  declaration  of  war, 
announcing  his  purpose  to  be  nothing  more  than  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Austrians  from  Italy. 

For  some  two  or  three  weeks  there  were  no  actual  hos- 
tilities, the  Austrians  being  occupied  with  plundering  the 
part  of  Italy  they  had  entered,  and  the  French  using 
every  exertion  to  bring  up  their  troops  and  make  ready 
for  battle.  The  Austrian  left  wing  was  defeated  near 
Montebello  on  the  20th  May  ;  on  the  31st  May  and  ist 
June  the  Austrians  were  again  worsted  at  Palestro  and 
driven  across  the  Ticino.  On  the  4th  June  was  fought 
the  battle  of  Magenta,  in  which  the  Austrians  were  routed 
with  a  loss  of  about  20,000  (including  7,000  prisoners), 
the  French  losing  about  7,000  killed  and  wounded.  The 
Austrians  took  up  a  position  along  the  line  of  the  Mincio  ; 
the  armies  of  Austria  and  France  were  commanded  by 
their  emperors  in  person,  and  for  the  next  twenty  days 
they  were  manoeuvred  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  them  in 
collision  at  Solferino,  whose  battle-field  has  become  his- 
toric. 

On  the  23d  of  June  151,000  French  and  Sardinians 
stood  facing  160,000  Austrians,  the  latter  having  650  guns 
and  the  former  nearly  as  man)-.  The  Austrian  right  and 
centre  occupied  strong  defensive  positions,  their  left  wing 
standing  on  a  plain  waiting  to  begin  the  attack.  It  was 
intended,  since  the  opportunity  seemed  to  be  offered,  to 
push  the  French  out  of  their  encampments  beyond  the 
Chiese  and  up  to  the  base  of  the  mountains.     A  consider- 


BATTLE    OF  SOLFERTNO.  20I 

able  portion  of  the  ground  between  the  Chiese  and  the 
Mincio  was  level  and  full  of  earthworks  and  strong  posi- 
tions; the  remainder  was  a  plain  or  slightly  undulating 
land,  covered  with  vineyards,  small  gardens,  cornfields,  and 
orchards  of  fruit-trees.  The  more  broken  ground  behind 
this  position  extends  from  Volta  to  Sonato,  closing 
around  the  plain  in  a  half-circle.  Just  above  the  hills 
rises  the  village  of  Solferino.  The  plain  is  broken  by  fis- 
sures in  many  places,  which  interfere  with  the  rapid 
movement  of  troops.  There  are  also  many  long  stone 
walls  bounding  the  farms. 

The  only  place  for  manoeuvring  large  bodies  of  troops 
is  the  plateau  of  San  Martino,  which  is  seen  in  tlie  dis- 
tance, and  its  northern  and  western  sides  are  so  steep  as 
to  render  it  a  very  powerful  position.  A  valley  running 
to  the  south  of  Solferino  widens  into  a  marsh.  The  high- 
ways from  Castiglione  and  Carpendolo  extend  along  the 
hills,  and  not  far  off  is  the  square  between  Pozzolengo, 
Volta,  Medola  and  Rivoltella,  the  field  where  the  battle 
of  Castiglione  was  fought  in  1796. 

At  daybreak  on  the  24th  the  French  and  Sardinians 
broke  up  their  encampments,  marching  in  close  array. 
The  1st  corps,  commanded  by  Marshal  Baraguey 
d'Hilliers,  was  to  attack  the  Austrians  in  their  position  on 
the  heights  of  Solferino ;  the  2d  corps,  which  was  to 
advance  on  the  village,  had  been  on  the  way  since  three 
o'clock,  in  the  morning.  The  1st  division  was  ordered 
to  support  the  right  wing  of  the  2d ;  it  started  at  four 
o'clock,  moving  on  towards  Castiglione.  The  ist  division 
was  to  be  followed  by  the  3d,  which  was  not  to  move 
from  Esenta  before  six  o'clock.  A  great  deal  of  time  was 
lost  in  these  movements,  in  consequence  of  the  rugged 
nature  of  the  ground  to  be  crossed  and  the  lack  of  knowl- 
edge of  the  plans  and  positions  of  the  Austrians.  The 
1st  division  under  General  Forey  encountered  the  Aus- 
trian outposts   near  tlie  little  town  of  Fontana  and  forced 


202  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

them  back.  When  the  5th  Austrian  corps  learned  defi- 
nitely that  the  French  were  moving  up,  they  took  position 
on  the  western  edge  of  Solferino.  In  attempting  to  carry 
the  hills  in  front  of  that  point,  the  French  found  that  the 
Austrians  were  in  front  in  great  strength ;  they  were  re- 
pulsed with  heavy  loss,  and  the  3d  corps  was  stopped  also 
close  by  Casa  Morino,  a  very  strong  farm-house  on  the 
road  between  Medola  and  Solferino. 

The  2d  French  corps  then  formed  in  readiness  for  bat- 
tle without  trying  to  advance  farther  to  the  front.  Mar- 
shal MacMahon  sent  couriers  to  head-quarters  to  report 
that  he  was  in  front  of  the  entire  Austrian  army  in  posi- 
tion on  the  line  of  Solferino  to  Carriano.  He  did  not 
dare  to  risk  an  attack,  and  therefore  remained  in  position 
waiting  for  orders  from  the  emperor  and  for  information 
regarding  the  whereabouts  of  the  4th  corps,  which  he  de- 
pended on  to  cover  his  right  flank.  This  corps  had  start- 
ed from  Carpendolo  at  three  o'clock  taking  the  road  to 
Medola.  It  was  temporarily  commanded  by  General  Niel, 
and  had  at  the  end  of  a  two-hours'  march  encountered 
some  squadrons  of  Uhlans  who  were  speedily  driven  back. 
When  the  Austrian  commander  learned  that  the  French 
were  advancing  in  full  strength  on  Medola,  he  dispatched 
two  brigades  to  oppose  them.  Marshal  Canrobert,  com- 
manding the  3rd  corps,  was  to  go  into  camp  at  Medola, 
but  to  avoid  crossing  the  lines  of  the  4th  corps  he  left  the 
direct  line  of  advance  and  proceeded  by  a  long  and  cir- 
cuitous route  around  Acqua  Fredda  and  Castel  GofTredo. 
When  the  3d  corps  had  crossed  the  Chiese  near  Visano 
they  encountered  a  regiment  of  hussars  whom  they  drove 
back. 

Marshal  Canrobert  wanted  to  go  to  the  support  of  the 
4th  corps,  and  on  learning  that  General  Luy's  division 
was  menaced  on  its  flank  he  turned  his  command  towards 
Ceresana,  but  was  delayed  by  the  Chiese,  whose  crossing 
consumed  two  hours.     The   three   Piedmontese    divisions 


BATTLE   OF  SOLFERINO.  203 

were  on  the  extreme  left  of  the  front  of  the  allied  army. 
These  divisions  were  making  a  reconnoissance  of  the  fields 
between  Lake  Garda  and  Pozzolengo  towards  Peschiera, 
and  seeing  the  Austrians  posted  on  a  ridge  they  advanced 
to  attack  them.  At  first  they  drove  them  back,  but  a  re- 
inforcement of  Austrians  came  up  and  the  Piedmontese 
in  their  turn  were  compelled  to  retire.  General  Benedek 
had  25,000  men  occupying  a  large  expanse  of  country. 
Two  brigades  were  at  some  distance  from  the  main 
body,  but  the  Piedmontese  made  no  attempt  to  take 
advantage  of  this  insecure  position.  When  General  Bene- 
dek had  dispersed  their  advance  guard  he  sought  to 
cut  off  their  line  of  retreat,  but  General  Mollard  coming 
on  with  the  3d  Piedmontese  brigade  took  up  the  fight 
and  marched  to  the  attack  on  San  Martino.  The  steep 
height  was  twice  scaled  by  6,000  Piedmontese  and 
twice  they  were  driven  back,  followed  and  crowded  upon 
Rivoltella,  thus  losing  all  the  advantages  they  had  pre- 
viously gained. 

While  these  encounters  were  taking  place  Marshals 
MacMahon  and  Baraguey  d'  Hilliers  notified  head-quarters 
that  the  Austrians  were  throwing  out  heavy  columns  on 
the  hills  of  Solferino  and  Carriano.  Therefore  the  em- 
peror left  Montichiaro  and  took  a  new  position  at  Cas- 
tiglione,  accompanied  by  his  staff  and  personal  escort.  The 
advancing  columns  of  the  French  were  spread  out  at  too 
great  a  distance  to  render  one  another  any  effective  sup- 
port. The  3d  corps  was  sent  to  support  the  4th  corps 
and  to  stop  an  Austrian  corps  which  was  marching  from 
Mantua  upon  Ossola.  The  2d  Piedmontese  division 
turned  from  the  Solferino  road  to  find  their  3d  and  5th 
divisions  defeated  at  San  Martino,  but  their  assistance  was 
of  no  avail  as  the  ranks  were  already  badly  broken  and 
scattered. 

Marshal  Baraguey  d'  Hilliers,  thus  unsupported  on  his 
left  wing  and  menaced  on  his  right   makes   ready  for  the 


204  DECISIVE   BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

assault  on  the  formidable  works  of  Solferino.  Upon  the 
result  of  this  assault  will  depend  the  issue  of  the  battle. 
One  brigade  under  General  Forey  moves  into  the  plain 
while  another  is  ordered  to  occupy  a  position  on  the 
heights  against  Solferino  village,  with  the  voltigeurs 
of  the  Guard  in  readiness  to  support  them.  The  artillery 
of  the  Guards  is  unlimbered  in  front  of  the  Austrian  po- 
sition, at  a  distance  of  300  yards.  The  Imperial  Guards 
rest  on  a  line  with  General  Forey's  division. 

It  is  now  eleven  o'clock.  This  twofold  assault,  properly 
aided  by  the  reserve  artillery  of  the  1st  corps  together 
with  the  three  columns  resting  on  Monte  Fenile,  ought  to 
make  success  certain  on  the  centre  of  the  line.  The  Em- 
peror of  Austria  had  likewise  transferred  his  head-quar- 
ters, going  to  Volta,  where  he  learned  that  the  French  had 
begun  the  attack  in  earnest.  At  9.12  A.M.  he  issued  the 
following  command  : 

"  General  Slick,  the  commander  of  the  2d  army,  is  to  hold 
Solferino  as  long  as  he  ran.  The  8th  corps,  after  folding 
back  the  Piedmontese  upon  Lake  Garda,  will  send  detachments 
in  support  of  the  3d  corps.  The  ist  army  will  keep  its  direc- 
tion and  disengage  the  centre  attacked  by  the  enemy." 

The  2d  brigade  of  Forey  moves  forward  at  a  double 
quick  to  climb  the  nearest  height  to  the  east  of  Solferino, 
but  it  is  driven  back  by  superior  numbers.  After  this  re- 
pulse General  Maneque  advances  with  3  battalions  of  vol- 
tigeurs. He  is  more  successful,  and  drives  the  Austrians 
upon  the  base  of  Monte  Sacre,  where  a  fierce  battle  is  be- 
ing waged.  Forey  with  his  2d  brigade  finds  it  impossible 
to  turn  the  Austrian  right  flank  at  the  tower  of  Solferino; 
his  ranks  are  cut  by  the  shot  and  shell  of  Austrians  who 
stubbornly  hold  the  position.  The  division  of  General 
L'Admirault  now  advances  to  make  its  attack,  which  is 
chiefly  directed  on  the  cemetery  and  on  the  castle,  but  this 
also  is  met  by  a  killing  fire.     The  marshal  now  calls  upon 


205 


2o6  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

the  Division  Bazaine  for  aid,  while  the  Austrians  stand 
waiting  for  their  2d  corps,  which  never  arrived. 

Baraguey  d'HilHers  perceives  that  progress  from  this 
side  is  impossible  ;  accordingly  he  orders  his  men  to  attack 
the  cemetery  from  the  rear,  and  the  hill  is  taken  at  last. 
While  the  ist  French  corps  is  actively  engaged,  the  2d 
corps  engages  the  ist  Austrian  corps.  The  Austrians 
capture  Cassiano  and  Carriano,  threatening  to  cut  off  Mac- 
Mahon's  retreat.  But  success  at  Solferino  gives  the  French 
some  men  to  spare.  The  assault  is  again  taken  up  and  the 
Austrians  are  forced  back.  General  Maneque  holds  his 
position  on  the  high  ground  of  Monte  Sacre  and  General 
Noel  advances  on  San  Cassiano.  Marshal  MacMahon  is 
enabled  to  protect  his  flanks  and  even  to  assume  the  offen- 
sive. About  five  o'clock  a  strong  body  of  Austrian  hussars 
try  to  turn  MacMahon's  left.  They  advance  at  a  charge 
and  force  their  way  through  some  French  cavalry  patrols, 
through  a  battalion  of  Decaen's  division,  and  crowd  back 
some  of  the  imperial  cavalry,  but  do  not  succeed  in  break- 
ing the  French  line. 

When  Marshal  MacMahon  learned  that  General  Noel 
intended  to  advance  on  Carriano,  he  took  the  offensive, 
pushing  forward  the  1st  division  on  Solferino  to  join  the 
grenadiers  protecting  San  Cassiano.  General  La  Motte- 
Rouge  turning  from  the  right  of  San  Cassiano  proceeded 
to  attack  the  Austrians  who  were  strongly  posted  there. 
The  Chasseurs  d'Afrique  headed  the  column  but  were 
driven  back,  and  a  second  attempt  had  a  similar  result. 

Even  after  losing  his  position  at  Solferino  the  Aus- 
trian emperor  hoped  for  victory.  He  believed  that  on 
the  plateau  of  Carriano  the  issue  of  the  day  might  be 
changed,  and  therefore  he  moved  there  with  his  head-quar- 
ters. By  a  movement  of  General  Wimpffen  the  1st  and 
2d  French  corps  were  separated  ;  the  emperor  then  or- 
dered Wimpffen  to  combine  hi^  forces  on  Castiglione  and 
to  press  the  French  as  vigorously  as  possible.      The  Aus- 


BATTLE    OF   SOLFERINO.  20/ 

trians  moved  towards  Medola,  but  were  held  in  check.  The 
9th  Austrian  corps  attacked  Casanuova  but  did  not  suc- 
ceed in  capturing  it.  Opposed  to  45,000  French  is  a  force 
of  65,000  Austrians. 

The  key  of  the  French  position  is  Casanuova  for  which 
they  stubbornly  contend.  Marshal  Niel,  supported  by 
the  1st  brigade  of  General  Trochu,  goes  out  towards  Giu- 
dizzolo,  but  is  attacked  by  overpowering  numbers,  and  is 
on  the  point  of  being  captured  when  three  fresh  battalions 
come  up  and  save  him  from  defeat.  It  was  four  o'clock  when 
General  Wimpffen  was  driven  back  and  Niel  was  rescued  ; 
this  advantage  was  obtained  by  a  loss  of  5,000  men  killed 
and  wounded. 

The  Austrians  could  hold  their  positions  no  longer; 
their  centre  was  scattered  and  their  right  wing  in  danger. 
They  formed  a  new  line  behind  the  Mincio,  harassed  b\- 
MacMahon.  General  Benedek  still  maintained  himself 
at  San  Martino.  The  Piedmontese  had  suffered  severely 
at  his  hands,  and  he  was  threatening  to  turn  the  left  of  the 
1st  French.  Baraguey  d'Hilliers  ordered  General  Mollard 
to  guard  against  the  attack  and  support  the  French,  but 
before  the  blow  was  struck  Benedek  suddenly  withdrew, 
in  obedience  to  a  command  from  the  emperor  to  follow 
the  army  behind  the  Mincio. 

It  was  now  nine  in  the  evening  ;  no  enemy  was  in  view  on 
the  plain,  and  the  French  passed  the  night  in  bivouac  on 
the  battle-field.  The  sun  rose  next  morning  on  an  awful 
scene  ;  for  all  of  the  vast  plain  on  which  the  two  armies 
had  contended  the  day  before  was  thickly  strewn  with 
dead  and  wounded.  The  moans  and  cries  of  the  wounded 
were  heard  for  miles  around.  The  front  of  the  battle  ex- 
tended nearly  fifteen  miles  from  the  extreme  ends.  The 
fighting  was  most  severe  at  the  village  of  Solferino,  which 
both  parties  considered  the  key  of  the  position  ;  the  loss 
was  heaviest  at  that  point,  but  elsewhere  it  was  far  from 
light. 


208  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

The  losses  of  the  French  in  the  battle  amounted  to 
12,000  killed  and  wounded  of  non-commissioned  ofificers 
and  soldiers  ;  150  commissioned  ofificers  were  killed  and 
570  wounded  ;  7  colonels  and  6  lieutenant-colonels  were 
killed,  and  among  the  wounded  there  were  the  Generals 
L'Admirault,  Forey,  Auger,  Dieu,  and  Douay.  The  Sar- 
dinian army  had  5,525  killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  of 
which  642  were  killed.  Of  Sardinian  ofificers  killed  there 
were  49,  and  167  officers  were  wounded.  The  Sardinian 
army  captured  five  pieces  of  cannon  ;  the  French  took 
thirty  pieces  of  cannon,  four  flags,  and  6,000  prisoners. 
The  Austrian  losses  were  said  to  be  20,000  killed  and 
wounded,  including  630  officers,  while  the  prisoners, 
missing,  and  stragglers  were  fully  10,000  more.  The 
Austrians  retired  beyond  the  Mincio  and  took  up  their 
position  under  the  shelter  of  their  great  quadrilateral  of 
fortesses,  where  it  was  considered  doubtful  if  the  French 
would  be  able  to  contend  with  them  successfully. 

There  was  a  pause  in  hostilities  after  the  battle.  Three 
days  were  required  for  burying  the  dead  who  fell  in  the 
conflict,  but  it  was  fully  a  week  before  the  peasantry  of  the 
country,  who  had  been  summoned  for  the  work,  had  buried 
or  burned  the  carcases  of  the  cavalry  and  artillery  horses 
that  strewed  the  ground  for  long  distances.  Negotiations 
for  an  armistice  were  begun  immediately,  and  on  the  6th 
July  it  was  agreed  upon.  On  the  i  ith  of  the  same  month 
the  two  emperors  met  at  Villafranca  and  signed  the  pre- 
liminaries of  peace.  It  was  stipulated  that  Lombardy, 
with  the  exception  of  the  fortresses  of  Mantua  and  Pes- 
chiera,  should  be  ceded  to  Sardinia  ;  Venetia  was  to  re- 
main in  possession  of  Austria ;  the  restoration  of  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  and  the  Duke  of  Modena  were 
stipulated  ;  and  an  Italian  confederation  was  proposed  to 
be  formed. 

The  defeat  of  the  Austrians  at  Solferino  was  the  founda- 
tion of  the  united  Italy  of  later  days.     Within  less  than  a 


BATTLE    OF   SOLFERINO.  209 

year  after  the  memorable  battle  came  the  revolutions 
which  preceded  the  solemn  proclamation  of  Victor  Eman- 
uel as  King  of  Italy,  and  a  few  months  later  the  flight  of 
Francis  II.  to  Gaeta  and  the  capture  of  that  stronghold 
gave  the  new  ruler  the  control  of  the  southern  part  of  the 
peninsula.  France  was  compensated  for  her  part  in  the 
war  of  1859  ^y  ^^^  cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice  ;  later  events 
(in  1866  and '70),  which  will  be  considered  elsewhere,  com- 
pleted the  work  of  unification,  and  produced  the  "  Italia 
Irridenta  "  which  was  the  dream  of  Cavour  and  for  centu- 
ries the  ardent  hope  of  millions  of  his  countrymen. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

BATTLE  BETWEEN  THE  MONITOR  AND    THE    MERRIMAC — 

1862. 


The  battle  that  was  fought  in  Hampton  Roads  on  the 
9th  March,  1862,  was  the  first  encounter  of  iron-clad  ships 
of  war.  It  revolutionized  the  navies  of  the  world  and  was 
the  death-knell  of  the  "  wooden  walls  "  that  had  ruled  the 
ocean  for  centuries. 

Down  almost  to  i860  all  nations  had  relied  upon 
wooden  ships  for  their  navies  ;  a  few  iron  ships  had  been 
constructed,  but  the  models  had  not  materially  changed 
from  those  of  half  a  century  earlier.  There  was  a  ten- 
dency to  reduce  the  number  of  decks,  and  it  was  evident 
that  the  great  four-deckers  of  former  times  were  to  be  set 
aside  for  ships  more  easy  of  manoeuvring.  The  paddle 
had  made  way  for  the  screw  as  a  means  of  propulsion. 
With  paddle  engines  a  portion  of  the  machinery  was  ex- 
posed to  an  enemy's  shot,  while  with  a  screw  steamer 
every  thing  was  below  the  water  level ;  besides,  the  screw 
left  the  whole  broadside  free  for  fighting  or  other  pur- 
poses, which  before  was  considerably  enroached  upon  by 
the  paddle-boxes.  The  general  shape  of  the  ship  was  the 
same  as  of  old,  and  for  cruising  purposes  most  war  ships 
made  use  of  their  sails  far  more  than  steam. 

The  idea  of  protecting  the  sides  of  vessels  with  ar- 
mor of  some  kind  is  very  old,  dating  almost  as  far  back 
as  the  invention  of  gunpowder.  Indeed  some  of  the  Ro- 
man   galleys    and    other  vessels    before   gunpowder  was 

210 


MONITOR  AND   MERRIMAC.  211 

thought  of  had  their  sides  protected  with  leather,  cordage, 
wooden  beams,  heavy  planking,  or  with  plates  of  iron, 
brass,  or  other  metals.  Floating  batteries  with  armored 
sides  were  used  in  the  siege  of  Gibraltar  in  1782,  and  other 
batteries  were  constructed  at  different  epochs.  The  first 
steam  vessel  of  war  was  built  by  Robert  Fulton  for  the 
United  States  government  ;  she  was  launched  in  October 
1 8 14  and  completed  in  the  following  year.  Her  sides  are 
said  to  have  been  protected  by  thin  plates  of  iron,  but 
they  were  doubtless  not  sufificiently  thick  to  entitle  her  to 
be  classed  as  an  armored  ship. 

In  1826  an  anonymous  French  writer  proposed  the  con- 
struction of  iron  or  iron-clad  war-ships,  their  walls  being 
sufificiently  thick  to  resist  the  cannon-shot  of  those  days. 
Some  experiments  were  made  in  France  in  1834  to  ascer- 
tain the  resisting  power  of  iron  against  shot  and  shell,  and 
for  several  years  the  proposals  for  building  armored  ships 
were  much  discussed  both  in  France  and  England.  In 
1842  Robert  L.  Stevens  of  New  Jersey  proposed  to  the 
United  States  government  to  construct  iron-clad  steam 
batteries  which  should  be  capable  of  going  to  sea  and  able 
to  resist  artillery  projectiles.  It  was  decided  to  construct 
one  battery  upon  Stevens'  plan,  but  work  was  not  com- 
menced upon  it  until  1854.  The  battery  was  never  com- 
pleted, and  in  1874  it  was  sold  at  auction. 

The  English  government  made  several  experiments 
with  armor  plating,  but  the  conclusions  were  unfavorable 
to  its  adoption.  To  France  belongs  the  credit  of  the  first 
iron-plated  steam  frigate  of  the  first  class.  In  the  Crimean 
war  she  constructed  and  used  four  small  gun-boats  with 
armor  plating  ;  in  March,  1858,  work  was  begun  on  La 
Gloirc,  a  sea-going  frigate  carrying  thirty-six  guns,  and 
protected  amidships  with  plates  of  iron  four  and  a  half 
inches  thick,  with  a  backing  of  two  feet  of  solid  timber. 
La  Gloire  was  the  precursor  of  the  iron-clad  fleet  of 
France,  and  virtually  of  the  iron-clad  fleets  of  all   nations 


212  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

of  the  globe.  Shortly  after  she  was  begun  the  French 
laid  the  keels  of  the  Normaiidie  and  the  Invincible  on  the 
same  plans.  England  could  not  afford  to  lie  idle  under 
these  circumstances;  her  naval  authorities  ordered  the 
building  of  the  Waj'rior  and  short!}'  afterwards  of  the 
Black  Prince,  Defence,  and  Queen. 

In  1861  the  seizure  of  the  lower  Mississippi  by  the 
Confederates  rendered  the  construction  of  armored  ships 
a  necessity,  and  it  was  undertaken,  not  by  the  Navy,  but 
by  the  War  Department.  The  first  of  the  iron-clad  gun- 
boats were  designed  and  built  by  James  B.  Eads,  an  engi- 
neer of  St.  Louis,  and  in  a  very  short  time  he  turned  out 
the  St.  Louis,  Carondelet,  Cairo,  Louisville,  Mound  City, 
Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  Benton.  These  boats  were 
plated  with  iron  2\  inches  thick  on  a  backing  of  4  inches  of 
wood  placed  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  in  order  to  glance 
off  horizontal  shot ;  they  were  not  impenetrable  to  heavy 
guns,  but  were  safe  against  field-batteries  and  smaller 
cannon,  and  did  excellent  service  in  the  work  for  which 
they  were  intended.  Several  other  boats  of  the  same 
kind  were  built  during  the  course  of  the  war. 

Early  in  1861,  Norfolk,  Virginia,  was  abandoned  by  the 
national  government  and  occupied  by  the  Confederates. 
The  retiring  garrison  set  the  navy-yard  on  fire  in  several 
places,  and  much  valuable  property  was  destroyed,  includ- 
ing several  ships.  The  steam  frigate  Merriniac  was  par- 
tially burned  and  then  sunk  ;  she  was  of  3,500  tons  burth- 
en, and  carried  forty  guns.  After  her  hull  had  lain  for 
several  weeks  under  the  water,  one  of  the  Confederate 
naval  ofificers  proposed  to  raise  her  and  convert  her  into 
an  iron-clad  gun-boat.  The  plan  was  approved  by  the 
Navy  Department.  The  Merriniac  was  raised  and  cut 
down  to  her  old  berth  deck,  and  at  each  end  of  the  ship 
seventy  feet  of  distance  was  covered  over,  so  that  it  was 
only  a  few  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  water  when 
the  Merriniac  was  ballasted    for    ficrhtinc;-.     She  was  re- 


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214  DECISIVE  RATTLES   SINCE   IVATERIOO. 

named  the  Virginia,  but  as  she  has  gone  into  history  by 
her  old  appellation  she  will  be  called  the  Mcrrimac 
throughout  this  brief  history  of  her  performances. 

On  the  midship  section  of  the  Merrimac  her  new  de- 
signer placed  a  structure  somewhat  resembling  the  roof 
of  a  house.  It  was  175  feet  long,  and  7  feet  clear  in 
height,  whilst  its  width  was  flush  with  the  sides  of  the 
hull.  This  roof  sloped  at  the  sides  and  ends  at  an  angle 
of  45  degrees ;  it  was  of  pine  and  oak,  24  inches  thick, 
and  had  a  plating  of  iron  on  the  outside  4  inches  thick, 
in  two  layers  of  2  inches  each.  The  sides  of  the  roof 
were  straight,  but  the  ends  were  rounded  so  as  to  give  a 
wide  sweep  to  the  bow  and  stern  guns.  At  the  top  there 
was  a  flat  surface  about  20  feet  wide,  covered  with  a  grating, 
which  admitted  air  and  light  to  the  interior  of  the  en- 
closed space.  The  prow  was  fitted  with  a  beak  for  ram- 
ming purposes  ;  the  engines  were  the  engines  of  the  old 
Merrimac  ;  the  smoke-stack  or  chimney  rose  in  the  centre 
of  the  armored  space,  and  the  pilot  house  was  at  the  for- 
ward end  and  covered  with  4  inches  of  iron  at  the  same 
angle  as  the  sides. 

The  armament  of  the  Merrimac  consisted  in  all  of  ten 
guns.  There  were  two  7-inch  rifles  for  the  bow  and  stern 
pivots,  two  6-inch  rifles,  and  six  smooth-bore  broadside 
guns.  The  ship  drew  22  feet  of  water,  and  was  very  slow 
and  unwieldy.  The  maximum  of  her  speed  under  her  new 
conditions  did  not  exceed  five  knots  an  hour,  and  with  her 
great  length  it  took  fully  half  an  hour  to  turn  her  around. 
There  were  many  delays  in  fitting  her  out,  owing  partly  to 
the  great  demand  for  war  material  of  all  kinds,  and  part- 
ly in  consequence  of  the  inexperience  of  everybody  con- 
cerned. It  was  not  until  the  7th  of  March  that  the 
Merrimac  was  cast  loose  from  the  dock  and  started  down 
Elizabeth  River  on  what  was  supposed  by  many  specta- 
tors to  be  only  a  trial  trip.  She  was  commanded  by  Flag 
Ofificer   Franklin  Buchanan,  and  her  executive  and  ord- 


MONITOR  AND  MERRIMAC.  21  5 

nance  officer  was  Lieutenant  Catesby  Jones.  She  had  a 
full  staff  of  officers  and  a  crew  of  300  men. 

Let  us  now  look  at  the  Monitor,  which  was  so  soon  to 
be  the  antagonist  of  the  Mcrriuiac. 

On  the  3d  August,  1861,  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  enacted  a  law  directing  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
to  appoint  a  board  of  three  naval  officers  to  investigate 
plans  and  specifications  for  iron-clad  steamships  or  bat- 
teries, and  in  case  of  a  favorable  report  by  the  board,  the 
Secretary  was  authorized  to  cause  one  or  more  armored 
steam-batteries  or  steamships  to  be  built.  The  sum  of 
$1,500,000  was  appropriated  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  experi- 
ment. Many  plans  were  offered,  but  only  three  were  ac- 
cepted by  the  naval  board,  the  others  being  rejected  for 
various  reasons. 

The  first  place  on  the  list  was  given  to  the  proposal  of 
Captain  John  Ericsson,  of  New  York,  and  on  the  approv- 
al of  Congress  a  contract  was  made  for  the  construction 
of  a  battery  on  this  novel  plan.  The  contract  stipulated 
for  the  completion  of  the  battery  within  100  days  from 
the  signing  of  the  contract  (October  5,  1861),  and  the 
extraordinary  provision  was  introduced,  that  the  test  of 
the  battery,  upon  which  its  acceptance  depended,  should 
be  its  withstanding  the  fire  of  the  enemy's  batteries  at  the 
shortest  ranges,  the  United  States  agreeing  to  fit  out  the 
vessel  with  men,  guns,  etc. 

The  following  is  a  detailed  description  of  this  vessel ; 
it  will  interest  the  nautical,  naval,  or  historical  student, 
and  may  be  skipped  by  the  indolent  or  unscientific  reader. 
It  was  written  at  the  time  the  vessel  was  delivered  to  the 
United  States  Government,  Mareh  5,  1862. 

The  hull  is  formed  by  two  distinct  parts,  a  lower  and  upper, 
both  of  which  are  fiat-bottomed  ;  the  lower  one  built  of  |-inch 
iron,  124  feet  long,  34  feet  wide  at  the  top,  and  (i\  feet  deep. 
The  sides  incline  at  an  angle  of  about  51  degrees  with  a  verti- 
cal line,  and  terminate  in  sharp  ends,  the  bow  projecting  and 


2l6  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

coming  to  a  point  at  an  angle  of  80  degrees.  The  upper  hull 
is  174  feet  long,  41  feet  4  inches  wide,  with  perpendicular  sides 
5  feet  high.  It  juts  over  the  lower  hull  on  each  side  3  feet  7 
inches,  and  at  each  end  25  feet.  The  sides  of  this  portion  are 
built  of  white  oak,  2%  feet  thick,  covered  with  6  inches  of  iron 
plates  on  the  outside,  and  a  |-inch  plating  of  iron  within  ;  the 
object  of  the  latter  being  to  arrest  splinters  in  case  of  a  ball 
penetrating  the  sides.  The  top  is  covered  with  a  bomb-proof 
flat  deck  unprotected  by  any  railing  or  bulwark.  This  deck 
consists  of  oak  beams,  10  inches  square  and  26  inches  apart, 
covered  with  8-inch  plank,  and  this  with  2  layers  of  iron,  each 
an  inch  thick.  The  draught  of  water  is  10  feet,  leaving  only 
18  inches  above  the  surface.  The  projecting  ends  of  the  up- 
per hull  serve  as  a  cover  for  the  propeller  and  rudder  in  the 
stern  and  the  anchor  in  the  bow.  The  former  are  entirely  out 
of  reach  of  shot  ;  and  the  latter  is  carried  in  the  upper  hull, 
trom  which  it  is  readily  lowered,  and  into  which  it  is  hoisted 
again  by  men  working  below,  without  any  exposure  or  sign  of 
their  movements  on  the  outside.  The  lower  hull  is  so  situated 
beneath  the  upper,  that  it  can  only  be  reached  by  a  ball  after 
this  has  passed  through  at  least  25  feet  of  water,  and  the  incli- 
nation of  the  sides  would  then  prevent  its  penetration  ;  and 
the  upper  is  impregnable  in  its  6  inches  of  iron,  backed  with 
30  inches  of  white  oak,  and  the  inner  lining  of  -^-inch  iron. 

The  prominent  object  upon  the  deck  in  the  middle  of  the 
boat  is  the  turret  or  castle,  a  cylinder  of  20  feet  diameter 
within,  and  9  feet  high,  built  of  8  thicknesses  of  i-inch  plates, 
bolted  securely  one  over  another  with  overlapping  joints,  and 
lined  with  an  additional  layer  of  iron  an  inch  thick,  thus  mak- 
ing 9  inches  in  all.  The  weight  of  the  turret  is  about  100 
tons,  and  its  support  is  a  circular  bed  plate  of  composition 
metal  firmly  secured  to  the  deck.  Upon  this  it  is  supported 
except  in  time  of  action,  when  the  weight  is  taken  by  a  verti- 
cal central  shaft  of  iron,  with  which  it  is  made  to  revolve  as 
desired,  the  motive  power  being  a  steam-engine  specially  de- 
signed for  this  service,  as  also  for  working  the  blowers  for  the 
fires,  and  for  ventilation.  On  the  top,  the  turret  is  covered 
with  iron  beams  and  perforated  iron,  shell-proof.     This,  while 


MONITOR   AND   ME  R  RIM  AC.  21/ 

it  affords  protection,  admits  the  circulation  of  air  necessary  in 
working  the  guns.  Small  sliding  iron  hatchways  are  also  pro- 
vided, to  afford  an  entrance  for  the  men  through  tliis  portion. 

The  turret  is  constructed  for  two  heavy  guns,  which  con- 
stitute the  whole  armament  of  the  battery.  They  are  placed 
precisely  parallel  with  each  other,  and  both  are  directed  out 
the  same  side  of  the  turret.  Those  selected  for  the  first  trial 
were  ii-inch  Dahlgren  smooth-bore  guns,  carrying  i68  lb. 
round  shot.  Some  wrought-iron  shot  were  provided  for  the 
first  encounter,  but  their  use  was  forbidden  for  fear  of  their 
bursting  the  guns,  by  reason  of  their  weight,  being  15  lbs. 
greater  than  that  of  the  shot  used  in  proving  the  guns.  The 
port-holes  are  circular  openings,  3  feet  above  the  deck,  just 
large  enough  to  admit  the  muzzle  of  the  gun,  and  kept  closed 
by  a  sliding  shutter,  managed  on  the  inside,  and  removed  only 
when  the  gun  is  run  out  to  be  fired.  The  gun-carriages  are  of 
wrought  iron  and  run  on  slides  very  accurately  constructed. 
The  sighting  of  the  guns  was  designed  to  be  not  over  their 
line  through  the  port-holes  ;  but  four  holes  were  pierced 
through  the  turret  at  the  height  of  the  eye  for  telescopes,  and 
just  outside  of  the  holes  reflectors  were  fixed,  which  bent  the 
ray  of  light  coming  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the  guns 
through  the  axis  of  the  telescope.  In  action,  however,  the 
ordinary  mode  of  sighting  was  adopted. 

The  turret  is  caused  to  revolve  to  the  right  or  left,  by  the 
movement  of  a  small  wheel  which  controls  the  action  of  the 
steam,  and  is  turned  by  the  gunner  or  his  assistants,  and  a 
scale  is  provided  by  which  the  elevation  of  the  guns  is  also 
adjusted.  When  ready  for  firing,  the  shutter  is  triced  up  by 
the  gunner,  the  piece  is  run  out,  fired,  and  instantly  returns  by 
the  recoil,  a  friction  clamp  upon  the  sides  of  the  ways  arresting 
it  at  any  desired  point.  On  this  side  of  the  turret  is  an  addi- 
tional thickness  of  iron  plating  of  sbout  3  inches. 

The  pilot  or  wheel-house,  as  originally  constructed,  was 
a  square  box  formed  of  bars  or  beams  of  wrought  iron,  9  inches 
by  12,  interlocked  at  the  corners,  and  covered  with  heavy  pla- 
ting. Elongated  horizontal  apertures  at  the  sides  afford  the 
only  look-out  for  the  helmsman.    These  apertures  may  also  be 


2l8  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

used  as  loopholes  for  musketry  if  desirable.  In  the  place  of 
chimneys  bomb-proof  gratings  are  set  in  the  deck,  and  through 
these  the  smoke  of  the  fires  is  driven  out  by  the  blowers  ;  low 
temporary  chimneys  are  however  provided,  which  are  removed 
in  time  of  action.  The  deck  is  thus  entirely  free  of  all  incum- 
brances, and  the  men  who  work  the  vessel  and  handle  the  guns 
are  all  entirely  out  of  sight,  beneath  the  invulnerable  plating. 
All  access  into  the  interior  is  securely  shut  off,  so  that  if  the 
battery  were  boarded,  the  men  could  not  be  reached,  and  no 
harm  could  be  done  the  vessel  itself.  Its  sharp  and  powerful 
iron  prow  will  enable  it  to  sink  with  ease  any  wooden  vessel 
it  can  reach,  and  its  light  draught  allows  of  its  running  into 
shoal  waters  either  for  offensive  operations  or  to  retire,  if 
necessary,  to  a  distance  from  more  powerful  vessels  of  deeper 
draught.  Her  complement  of  men  consists  of  60  in  all,  of 
whom  1 1  are  officers.  The  battery  is  evidently  designed  for 
harbor  and  river  operations,  and  not  for  encountering  heavy  seas. 

At  the  suggestion  of  Capt.  Ericsson,  her  designer,  the 
new  ship  was  named  the  JMonitor.  Until  the  very  hour 
of  her  departure  from  New  York  the  workmen  were  busy 
upon  her,  and  several  things  remained  unfinished  or  in- 
complete when  she  sailed.  The  government  was  aware  of 
the  changes  that  had  been  made  in  the  Mcrrimac,  and 
there  was  great  anxiety  to  have  the  Monitor  at  Hampton 
Roads  at  the  earliest  possible  date.  She  left  New  York 
in  the  forenoon  of  March  6th  in  tow  of  the  tug-boat  Seth 
Low  and  using  her  own  engine.  She  was  commanded  by 
Lieut.  John  L.  Worden,  and  her  executive  officer  was 
Lieut.  S.  D.  Greene.  During  her  entire  career  of  less  than 
a  year  Lieut.  Greene  remained  the  executive  officer  of 
the  Monitor,  though  she  had  in  the  same  period  no  less 
than  five  commanders.  She  had  a  full  complement  of 
other  officers,  and  her  crew  was  selected  from  the  crews  of 
the  North  Carolina  and  Sabine,  then  at  the  Brooklyn 
Navy-yard. 

The  Monitor  narrowly  escaped  foundering  during  her 


MONITOR  AND   MERRIMAC.  219 

voyage  from  New  York  to  Fortress  Monroe.  On  the  7th 
March  a  light  breeze  sprang  up  and  demonstrated  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  theory  that  the  Monitor  was  not  adapted 
for  sea-going  voyages.  A  great  deal  of  water  entered  at 
the  base  of  the  turret,  and,  to  use  the  language  of  one  of 
her  ofificers,  "  she  leaked  like  a  sieve."  The  water  came  in 
through  the  holes  of  the  blower-pipes,  through  the  chim- 
neys, and  into  the  top  of  the  turret  and  it  even  dashed 
into  the  peep-holes  of  the  pilot  house  with  such  force  as 
to  knock  the  helmsman  away  from  the  wheel.  The  belts 
of  the  blower  engines  slipped  in  consequence  of  their  wet- 
ting, and  there  was  not  sufficient  draught  for  purposes  of 
combustion.  Two  ofificers  and  several  men  of  the  crew 
were  overcome  by  the  noxious  gases  that  formed  in  the 
engine  room,  and  narrowly  escaped  suffocation.  At  one 
time  the  fires  were  nearly  extinguished,  the  engine  room 
was  half  filled  with  water,  and  only  the  cessation  of  the 
breeze  saved  the  Monitor  from  going  to  the  bottom  of  the 
Atlantic  before  she  had  an  opportunity  to  fire  a  single 
shot  at  the  enemy. 

During  the  night  of  the  7th  rough  water  was  again  en- 
countered, and  the  same  troubles  arose.  The  darkness 
added  to  the  danger,  and  to  make  matters  worse  the  wheel 
ropes  became  jammed,  and  the  hawser  that  connected  the 
Monitor  with  the  tow-boat  was  the  only  safety  of  the  former. 
If  it  had  given  way  she  would  have  inevitably  been  lost. 
At  4  A.M.  on  Saturday,  March  8th,  the  Monitor  passed 
Cape  Henry,  and  her  crew  heard  the  booming  of  the  guns 
that  betokened  trouble  in  the  vicinity  of  Fortress  Monroe, 
about  twenty  miles  distant.  Capt.  Worden  immediately 
ordered  all  preparations  made  for  battle,  and  when  the 
Monitor  anchored  in  Hampton  Roads  at  nine  o'clock  .she 
was  ready  for  earnest  work. 

It  was  about  noon  on  the  8th  of  March  when  the  Merri- 
mac  steamed  down  from  Norfolk  in  the  direction  of  the 
Union  fleet,  which  was  anchored  near  Fortress  Monroe  and 


220  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

at  Newport  News,  seven  miles  above.  At  the  former 
anchorage  were  the  frigates  ]\Iinnesota,  Roanoke,  and  St. 
Lawrence;  the  first  two  being  40-gun  steam  frigates,  and 
the  St.  Lawrence  a  saiHng  ship  carrying  50  guns.  Near 
Newport  News  the  Congress,  50  guns,  and  the  Cumberland, 
30  guns,  were  anchored  under  the  protection  of  the  shore 
batteries.  Fire  was  opened  on  the  Merrimac  from  these 
vessels  and  the  shore  batteries,  but  the  shot  glanced  off 
without  doing  any  damage.  The  Merrimac  did  not  reply 
until  she  was  in  short  range,  when,  with  a  single  dis- 
charge from  her  forward  pivot  gun,  she  disabled  the  after 
pivot  gun  of  the  Cumberland.  Then  she  passed  near  the 
Congress  and  rammed  the  Cumberland,  making  a  great  hole 
in  her  side  and  admitting  so  much  water  that  the  ship 
sank  in  little  more  than  half  an  hour,  carrying  down  many 
of  her  crew.  She  continued  to  fight  to  the  last,  and  some 
of  her  guns  were  fired  at  the  Merrimac  just  as  the  water 
reached  them.  Her  flag  remained  in  its  position  after  the 
hull  reached  the  bottom,  fifty-four  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  water. 

The  Congress  slipped  her  anchor  and  dropped  her  fore- 
topsail,  but  in  attempting  to  get  away  she  ran  aground. 
She  continued  to  fight  for  more  than  an  hour-after  the 
sinking  of  the  Cumberland,  the  Merrimac  choosing  her 
position  about  two  hundred  yards  away  and  pouring  in  a 
destructive  fire  as  fast  as  her  guns  could  be  worked.  Find- 
ing the  contest  was  hopeless,  the  commander  of  the  Con- 
gress ran  up  the  white  flag  and  the  firing  ceased. 

Commander  Buchanan  ordered  the  gun-boats  Beaufort 
and  Raleigh,  that  accompanied  the  Merrimac,  to  remove 
the  crew  of  the  Cojigress,  and  then  set  her  on  fire,  not 
daring  to  risk  the  Merrimac  in  the  shoal  water  where  the 
Cojigress  had  grounded.  The  Union  batteries  on  shore  con- 
tinued their  fire,  so  that  the  gun-boats  could  not  perform 
their  allotted  work  without  great  danger.  The  Confeder- 
ates reported  that  two  officers  of  the  Raleigh  were  killed 


SCALE  OF  M/LLS 


SCENE  OF   THE   BATTLE   BETWEEN   THE   MONITOR  AND   MERRIMAC. 


222  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

while  attempting  to  remove  the  wounded  from  the  Con- 
gress;  accordingly  the  Confederate  gun-boats  retired,  and 
the  crew  of  the  Congress  escaped  to  the  shore  by  swimming 
or  were  taken  off  in  small  boats.  The  Congress  was  then 
fired  by  red-hot  shot  from  the  Merrimac  and  was  soon  in 
flames.  Commander  Buchanan  was  wounded,  and  the 
command  of  the  Merrimac  fell  upon  Lieutenant  Jones. 
The  Merrimac  had  twenty  men  killed  and  wounded  in  the 
action;  her  smoke-stack  and  steam-pipes  were  carried  away, 
and  so  were  railings,  boat-davits,  and  stanchions.  But  her 
machinery  was  not  damaged,  none  of  her  guns  was  dis- 
mounted, and  there  were  no  serious  injuries  to  her  armor. 

Sunset  was  approaching,  and  it  was  not  deemed  wise  to 
attack  the  Minnesota  at  that  late  hour  of  the  day  and  with 
the  then  condition  of  the  tide,  especially  as  she  wa§ 
aground  and  they  would  be  sure  of  their  prey  in  the  morn- 
ing. Accordingly  the  Merrimac  steamed  away  to  Nor- 
folk, repaired  her  damages  as  much  as  possible,  and  pre- 
pared for  the  work  of  the  next  day. 

The  intention  was  for  the  Merrimac  to  destroy  the 
Minjiesota  and  then  attack  the  other  ships  near  Fortress 
Monroe.  She  steamed  in  the  direction  of  the  Minnesota, 
and  as  she  approached  that  vessel  the  Monitor  came  out 
from  behind  the  Minnesota  s  great  hull  and  offered  battle. 
The  "  cheese-box  on  a  raft  "  had  such  an  insignificant  ap- 
pearance that  it  was  thought  she  could  be  easily  disposed 
of.  But  as  soon  as  the  battle  began  the  Merrimac  s  com- 
mander found  the  novel  craft  a  most  formidable  foe.  The 
Monitor  drew  twelve  feet  of  water  and  the  Merrimac 
twenty-three  ;  the  former  was  able  to  choose  her  position, 
while  the  Merrimac  dared  not  venture  where  there  was  a 
possibility  of  taking  the  ground.  On  two  or  three  occa- 
sions she  touched  bottom,  but  hung  there  only  a  few  mo- 
ments at  a  time. 

The  Monitor  fired  much  more  slowly  than  the  Merrimac, 
but  her  shot  told  with  some   effect,  though  they  could 


223 


224  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

not  disable  her  antagonist.  Each  boat  tried  to  ram  the 
other,  but  neither  was  successful.  When  the  Alcrrimac 
approached  close  to  the  Monitor  with  the  intention  of 
sinking  her  by  ramming,  the  latter  fired  twice,  and  partially 
forced  in  the  side  of  the  Mcrrimacs  shield,  knocking 
down  several  of  her  crew ;  her  executive  officer  said  that 
another  shot  at  the  same  point  would  have  penetrated 
the  side.  The  Monitor  was  hit  repeatedly  on  the  turret, 
but  with  no  other  effect  than  to  make  several  indentations. 
Finding  that  no  impression  could  be  made  in  this  way, 
the  commander  of  the  Merriinac  ordered  her  fire  to  be 
concentrated  on  the  Monitor  s  pilot  house,  and  with  very 
good  effect.  One  shot  partially  destroyed  the  pilot  house 
and  disabled  Captain  Worden.  He  was  blinded  by  the 
force  of  the  blow,  and  blood  poured  from  his  face.  He 
was  thought  at  the  time  to  be  fatally  injured,  but  he 
recovered  in  a  few  weeks  and  returned  to  duty.  After 
Captain  Worden  was  disabled,  Lieutenant  Greene  took 
command  and  held  it  through  the  rest  of  the  fight. 

The  position  of  the  pilot  house  was  found  inconvenient, 
for  the  reason  that  the  guns  in  the  turret  could  not  be 
fired  directly  ahead  without  the  risk  of  hitting  the  pilot 
house  and  knocking  it  to  pieces.  Subsequently  it  was 
placed  directly  over  the  turret,  and  this  was  the  position 
of  the  pilot  house  in  all  the  later  ships  of  the  Monitor 
pattern.  Lieutenant  Greene,  in  an  article  in  the  Ccntiiry 
magazine,  said  that  it  was  very  difificult  to  maintain  com- 
munications with  the  pilot  house,  as  the  speaking-tube 
between  it  and  the  turret  was  broken  early  in  the  battle. 
Word  was  passed  by  the  assistant  paymaster  and  the 
captain's  clerk,  but  as  both  were  landsmen,  the  nautical 
phrases  transmitted  through  them  often  became  unintelli- 
gible before  reaching  their  destination. 

In  the  turret  it  was  difficult  to  make  out  the  position 
of  the  Merriniac ;  marks  had  been  placed  on  the  deck, 
before  the  action,  to  indicate  the  direction   of   bow  and 


MONITOR   AND   MERRIMAC.  22$ 

stern,  and  starboard  and  port,  but  these  marks  were 
obliterated  after  a  little  while,  so  that  the  bearings  were 
unknown.  At  first  there  was  considerable  difificulty  in 
manipulating  the  turret,  as  the  machinery  did  not  work 
smoothly,  and  when  the  marks  alluded  to  were  obliterated, 
the  only  way  of  working  was  to  load  the  guns  and  then 
start  the  turret  on  its  revolution  until  the  M errimac  zow\6. 
be  seen  through  the  port-holes.  Then  the  shot  would  be 
delivered,  the  gun  run  in,  and  the  heavy  shields  over  the 
ports  dropped  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  an  enemy's  shot 
or  shell. 

The  orders  to  Captain  Worden  were  to  defend  the 
Minnesota  and  not  to  pursue  the  Merrimac,  if  such  pursuit 
should  leave  the  Minnesota  exposed.  Consequently,  the 
Monitor  refused  to  go  far  away  from  the  latter  ship,  and 
she  declined  all  efforts  of  the  Merrimac  to  draw  her  in  the 
direction  of  Sewall's  Point,  where  the  Confederate  land 
batteries  were  ready  to  pour  their  iron  storm  upon  her. 
The  fight  between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac  lasted 
from  eight  in  the  morning  until  two  in  the  afternoon,  when, 
finding  it  impossible  to  destroy  the  Minnesota  or  reach 
the  other  Union  ships  near  Fortress  Monroe,  the  Merri- 
mac retired.  Though  not  disabled  she  was  leaking  badly, 
her  machinery  was  difficult  to  manage,  her  ammunition  run 
low,  and  her  crew  were  quite  worn  out  with  two  days  of 
fighting.  In  obedience  to  her  orders,  the  Monitor  remained 
that  night  near  the  Minnesota,  Captain  Worden  being 
sent  on  a  tug  to  Washington  for  medical  treatment.  The 
next  day  was  a  day  of  rest,  as  the  Merrimac  did  not 
appear. 

The  Confederates  claimed  that  the  battle  was  a  drawn 
one  so  far  as  the  two  ships  were  concerned,  as  neither  ves- 
sel had  disabled  or  captured  the  other.  The  officers  of 
the  Monitor  claimed  that  they  had  won  a  great  victory,  as 
they  had  beaten  off  the  Merrimac  and  totally  prevented 
her  continuing  the  work  of  destruction  which  she  began 


226  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

the  day  before.  Undoubtedly  the  advantages  of  the  day's 
fighting  were  with  the  Monitor,  as  she  saved  the  fleet  of 
wooden  ships  from  destruction  and  utterly  checked  the 
course  of  Confederate  victory. 

During  the  next  two  months  the  Motiitor  lay  in  Hamp- 
ton Roads  carefully  guarding  the  entrance  of  Chesapeake 
Bay,  or  rather  preserving  it  against  any  raid  of  the  Merri- 
niac.  Twice  in  these  two  months  the  Merriniac  came  out 
of  Elizabeth  River  in  the  evident  hope  of  provoking  a 
battle,  but  she  did  not  venture  as  far  as  the  Monitor  s  an- 
chorage. 

The  commander  of  the  Mo7iitor  had  positive  orders  not 
to  venture  into  the  shoal  water  above  Hampton  Roads 
where  the  Union  fleet  could  not  support  her,  and  the 
Merriniac  had  equally  positive  orders  from  the  Confed- 
erate Navy  Department  not  to  go  beyond  a  certain  point, 
through  fear  that  she  might  be  disabled  by  the  fire  of  the 
forts  where  no  aid  could  reach  her. 

Norfolk  was  evacuated  early  in  May,  1862,  and  as  the 
Merrimac  drew  too  much  water  to  ascend  the  James  River, 
her  commander  ordered  her  destruction  ;  the  crew  escaped 
to  the  shore  and  the  vessel  was  burned  and  blown  up. 
And  so  ended  the  Merrimac, 

The  Monitor  afterwards  had  a  brief  engagement  with 
the  fortifications  at  Drewry's  Bluffs.  She  was  unable  to 
silence  the  guns  or  destroy  the  earthworks,  but  on  her  part 
she  suffered  no  damage.  In  December,  1862,  she  was 
thoroughly  repaired  and  ordered  to  Beaufort,  North  Caro- 
lina, in  tow  of  the  steamer  Rhode  Island.  On  the  night  of 
December  30th  she  went  down  at  sea  in  a  gale  ;  forty-nine 
ofificers  and  men  were  saved  by  the  boats  of  the  steamer, 
but  four  ofificers  and  twelve  men  were  drowned.  Lieut. 
Greene  said  it  was  impossible  to  keep  her  clear  of  water, 
and  the  ofBcers  thought  that  the  two  hulls  had  become 
separated  by  the  bumping  of  the  heavy  sea. 

Though  the  Monitor  was  the  design  of  Capt.  Ericsson, 


MOh'ITOR   AND   MERRIMAC.  22/ 

her  important  feature,  the  turret,  was  the  invention  of 
another  head  than  his.  In  1841  Theodore  R.  Timby  made 
a  model  of  an  iron  turret,  and  two  years  later  he  filed  a 
caveat  in  the  U.  S.  Patent  Ofifice  "  for  a  revolving  metallic 
tower,  and  for  a  revolving  tower  for  a  floating  battery  to 
be  propelled  by  steam."  In  the  same  year  (1843)  he  made 
and  exhibited  an  iron  model  which  combined  all  the  es- 
sential principles  of  his  invention,  and  a  short  time  later 
another  which  he  sent  to  the  Emperor  of  China  at  the 
hands  of  the  American  minister,  Mr.  Gushing.  A  com- 
mittee of  Congress  made  a  report  to  the  Secretary  of  War 
in  1848,  recommending  the  adoption  of  the  Timby  system. 
Nothing  was  done  in  the  matter  until  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war,  when  Timby  brought  out  a  new  model  and  secured 
a  patent  for  "  a  revolving  tower  for  offensive  and  defensive 
warfare,  whether  used  on  land  or  water."  His  original 
plan  was  for  a  revolving  turret  40  feet  in  diameter,  to  be 
pierced  for  six  guns  and  to  make  a  complete  revolution  in 
one  minute,  the  guns  to  be  fired  as  they  came  in  range  of 
the  object  to  be  reached.  In  accordance  with  this  plan  a 
shot  would  be  delivered  every  ten  seconds.  The  construc- 
tors of  the  Monitor  recognized  the  validity  of  Mr.  Tim- 
by's  claim  and  paid  him  liberally  for  the  right  to  use  his 
invention. 

In  England  in  1855  Captain  Cowpcr  Coles  invented  and 
patented  a  cupola  or  turret  which  was  afterwards  applied 
to  the  war  steamer  Royal  Sovereign,  a  wooden  vessel  origi- 
nally built  as  a  three-decker.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
Royal  Sovereign  was  not  purposely  built  for  use  as  a  turret 
ship,  the  new  principle  was  tried  under  disadvantages  ;  in 
1864  she  was  put  out  of  commission  and  ordered  to  be 
placed  among  the  reserved  ships,  although  many  officers 
contended  that  she  was  then  the  most  powerful  ship  in  the 
British  navy.  In  1866  Lord  Derby's  government  ordered 
the  construction  of  four  iron-clad  turret  ships  of  4,000 
tons  burthen  each  and  corresponding  steam  power.     The 


228  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

Monarch,  the  first  of  the  British  iron-clad  turret-ships,  was 
launched  in  1868,  and  the  Captain  shortly  after  the  Mo?i- 
arch.  By  some  naval  experts  the  Captain  was  thought  to 
be  top-heavy,  and  this  opinion  was  verified  by  her  capsizing 
and  foundering  off  Finisterre  on  the  7th  September,  1870. 
Four  hundred  and  seventy-two  lives  were  lost,  including 
that  of  Captain  Coles,  her  designer.  She  was  overturned 
in  a  heavy  squall  and  went  down  in  three  minutes ;  her 
overturning  was  caused  by  her  very  low  freeboard  and  the 
great  weight  of  her  masts,  hurricane,  deck,  and  turret.  In 
1866  the  Monadnock,  one  of  the  American  monitors,  made 
the  voyage  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  by  way  of 
the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  in  the  same  year  another  of 
these  vessels,  the  Miantojwvwh,  crossed  the  Atlantic  and 
went  to  Cronstadt,  returning  safely  to  the  United  States. 
It  was  thus  demonstrated  that  turret  ships  were  capable 
of  making  long  sea  voyages ;  since  that  time  many  sea- 
going iron-clads  have  been  constructed  by  most  of  the 
European  nations,  and  their  success  is  fully  established. 

Probably  no  naval  conflict  in  the  history  of  the  world 
ever  attracted  as  much  attention  as  did  the  battle  in 
Hampton  Roads,  between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac. 
It  revolutionized  the  navies  of  the  world,  and  showed  that 
the  wooden  ships,  which  had  long  held  control  of  the 
ocean,  were  of  no  further  use  for  fighting  purposes. 
Commenting  upon  the  news  of  that  event,  the  London 
Times  said :  "  Whereas  we  had  available  for  immediate 
purposes  one  hundred  and  forty-nine  first-class  war  ships, 
we  have  now  two,  these  two  being  the  Warrior  and  her 
sister  Ironside.  There  is  not  now  a  ship  in  the  English 
navy,  apart  from  these  two,  that  it  would  not  be  madness 
to  trust  to  an  engagement  with  that  little  Monitor.''  Eng- 
land and  all  other  maritime  powers  immediately  proceeded 
to  reconstruct  their  navies,  and  the  old-fashiond  three  and 
four-decker  line-of-battle  ships  were  condemned  as  useless. 
.  Not  only  in  ships,  but  in  their  armament,  there  was  rapid 


MONITOR  AND  MERRIMAC. 


229 


progress,  and  so  great  has  been  the  advance  in  marine 
artillery  that  the  Monitors  of  1862,  and  the  subsequent 
years  of  the  American  war,  would  be  unable  to  resist  the 
shot  from  the  guns  of  iSSo-'S/.  The  most  recent  war 
steamers  of  England,  France,  Russia,  and  Italy  are  claimed 
to  be  as  great  an  improvement  upon  the  American  Moni- 
tors as  were  those  vessels  upon  their  wooden  predecessors. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

BATTLE   OF   GETTYSBURG — 1863. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  trace  the  causes  of  the  civil 
war  in  the  United  States  of  America,  in  the  years  from 
1 86 1  to  1865,  a  war  which  deluged  the  land  with  blood 
and  brought  mourning  into  many  thousands  of  homes 
from  one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other.  Each  side 
battled  for  what  it  believed  to  be  the  right,  and  each  dis- 
played, valor,  determination,  and  heroism,  that  will  for- 
ever be  the  pride  of  all  Americans,  without  distinction  of 
creed  or  party.  From  its  commencement  in  1861  the 
war  progressed  with  varying  fortunes  until  the  event  of 
which  this  chapter  treats. 

With  its  smaller  population  and  its  limited  resources, 
the  South  had  been  compelled  to  see  the  war  confined 
to  its  own  area.  In  the  West  the  Union  armies  had 
steadily  advanced  into  the  Southern  territory ;  in  the 
East  the  ports  of  the  South  were  blockaded,  while 
the  land  forces  chiefly  confined  their  operations  to  Vir- 
ginia, one  of  the  foremost  of  the  slave-holding  States, 
and  an  ardent  supporter  of  the  cause  of  secession. 
In  September,.  1862,  the  Confederate  army  of  Northern 
Virginia  crossed  the  Potomac  with  the  intention  of  invad- 
ing the  Northern  States,  but  the  result  of  the  battle  of 
Antietam,  in  Maryland,  caused  its  commander,  General 
Lee,  to  retreat  to  Virginia,  and  abandon,  for  the  time,  his 
cherished  design. 

Early  in  June,  1863,  General  Lee  had  again  decided  on 

230 


BATTLE    OF   GETTYSBURG.  23 1 

a  campaign  which  was  to  give  the  Northern  States  a  taste 
of  the  horrors  of  war.  Hitherto  the  fighting  had  all  been 
on  Southern  soil,  but  now  it  was  to  be  carried  straight 
into  the  heart  of  Pennsylvania,  amid  the  rich  farms  and 
prosperous  towns  of  that  sober  commonwealth.  Instead 
of  waiting  for  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  under  Fighting 
Joe  Hooker  to  attack  him,  Lee  proposed  to  dodge  it,  and 
to  push  forward  towards  Maryland  by  the  valley  of  the 
Shenandoah.  If  he  could  conceal  his  movements  for 
some  time  from  the  national  army  he  might  be  able  to 
get  well  on  his  way  before  efificicnt  measures  could  be 
taken  to  oppose  him.  His  plan  was  to  detain  the  Union 
army  before  Fredericksburg  by  a  large  display  of  troops, 
then  to  turn  its  right  wing  and  push  up  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  under  cover  of  the  Blue   Ridge  Mountains. 

He  had  a  veteran  army  on  which  he  could  depend,  its 
effective  force  being  some  80,000  men,  of  whom  68,352 
were  infantry.  This  was  about  the  strength  of  the 
army  under  Hooker.  The  armies  were  thus  equal,  but 
Lee  had  one  great  advantage,  he  had  absolute  authorit)' 
and  could  do  what  he  saw  was  best  at  the  moment,  while 
Hooker  was  continually  hampered  by  orders  from  Wash- 
ington. 

On  June  3d  Longstreet's  1st  division  moved  forward 
into  the  Wilderness,  and  the  other  divisions  followed 
closely,  until  on  the  evening  of  the  7th,  the  1st  corps  had 
reached  the  neighborhood  of  Culpepper  Court-House. 
Ewell's  2d  corps  started  in  the  same  direction  on  the 
4th.  Gen.  A.  P.  Hill's  3d  corps  was  the  only  one  left 
to  occupy  the  positions  where  the  army  had  passed  the 
winter,  and  it  had  to  string  out  very  thinly  in  order  to 
conceal  the  departure  of  two  thirds  of  the  army. 

These  great  movements  could  not  entirely  escape  the 
attention  of  the  Unionists,  but  they  were  at  a  loss  to 
know  wliat  was  on  foot.  Hooker  believed  that  Lee  in- 
tended to  resume  the  campaign  of  the    preceding  year. 


232  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

and  to  push  forward  over  the  Rappahannock  to  Manassas. 
Beheving  that  Lee's  army  was  stretched  along  the  Cul- 
pepper road  he  determined  to  attack  the  weakened  line  at 
Fredericksburg.  Two  pontoon  bridges  were  thrown  over 
the  river  at  Franklin's  Crossing,  and  on  June  6th  Howe's 
division  crossed.  Hill's  corps  advanced  in  opposition  and 
Lee  prepared  to  recall  Ewell  if  he  found  it  necessary. 
When  Hooker  saw  this  display  of  force  he  checked  his 
advance,  and  failed  to  learn  how  small  was  the  force  op- 
posed to  him.  Learning  that  the  Confederate  cavalry 
under  General  Stuart  was  stationed  at  Culpepper,  Howe 
determined  to  make  a  cavalry  reconnoissance  on  a  large 
scale  in  that  direction.  His  object  w^as  to  learn  whether 
Stuart  meditated  a  raid  or  was  trying  to  cover  the  move- 
ments of  infantry.  In  the  meantime  Longstreet  arrived 
at  Culpepper  and  joined  Stuart. 

Lee's  plan  of  invasion  was  now  in  full  operation. 
Stuart  was  to  conceal  the  movements  of  the  infantry  by 
menacing  the  Unionists  near  Warrenton,  while  the  army 
was  to  proceed  to  the  northwest  by  way  of  Sperryvillc 
and  Thornton's  Gap  and  so  reach  the  valley  of  the  Shen- 
andoah.    This  would  leave  the  Union  army  in  the  rear. 

At  daybreak  of  the  9th,  Pleasanton's  two  columns, 
seven  thousand  five  hundred  cavalry  and  three  thousand 
infantr}',  crossed  the  Rappahannock.  The  Confederates, 
deeply  occupied  with  their  own  plans,  and  suspecting 
nothing,  were  taken  by  surprise,  and  Stuart  narrowly  es- 
caped losing  his  artillery'.  He  was  driven  back  and  lost 
his  baggage,  and  in  it  were  found  instructions  revealing 
Lee's  plans. 

Stuart  was  preparing  to  attack  Buford's  division,  when 
he  learned  that  Greggs'  division,  having  crossed  the  river 
unobserved,  was  coming  up  in  his  rear  and  was  then 
engaged  with  Robertson's  brigade  at  Fleetwood  Hill. 
Leaving  the  brigades  of  W.  H.  F.  Lee  and  Fitzhugh  Lee 
to  resist  Buford,  Stuart  hurried  back  and  attacked  Gregg. 


BATTLE   OF  GETTYSBURG.  233 

There  was  desperate  fighting,  and  Gregg  was  compelled 
to  fall  back.  He  did  so  none  too  soon,  for  as  he  was  leav- 
ing Brandy  Station  he  could  see  the  head  of  Ewell's  corps 
debarking  from  a  train  which  Lee  had  sent  over  in  great 
haste  from  Culpepper. 

Buford  and  Gregg  joined  forces  and  retreated  over  the 
river. 

The  importance  of  the  engagement  of  Brandy  Station 
lies  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  it  disclosed  a  part  of  Lee's 
plans  to  Hooker.  It  was  also  the  first  time  that  the  Union 
cavalry  had  boldly  attacked  the  Confederate  cavalry. 

It  did  not  change  Lee's  plans,  nor  did  it  trouble  Stuart 
very  much.  While  Hooker  knew  that  Lee  with  much  of 
his  army  was  at  Culpepper,  he  still  did  not  know  how  far 
he  intended  to  go.  He  extended  his  right  wing  along  the 
upper  Rappahannock  so  as  to  meet  Lee's  change  of  base, 
and  be  prepared  for  any  emergency. 

Lee  proceeded  with  his  campaign  with  his  usual  vigor. 
Ewell's  corps  was  pushed  forward  into  the  valley  of  Vir- 
ginia, marching  on  the  loth.  It  was  in  light  order  and 
advanced  rapidly,  crossing  the  Blue  Ridge  at  Chester  Gap, 
and  reaching  the  banks  of  the  Shenandoah  at  Cedarville 
on  the  1 2th.  The  Unionists  knew  nothing  of  this  move- 
ment, and  Ewell  took  advantage  of  their  ignorance  to 
press  forward  against  McReynolds'  Union  brigade  under 
Milroy,  at  Winchester.  Milroy  was  taken  by  surprise  and 
overwhelmed  by  numbers.  He  w^as  driven  out  of  Win- 
chester on  the  14th,  and  was  attacked  on  his  retreat.  The 
retreat  became  a  rout  and  his  men  scattered.  Some  es- 
caped to  Harper's  Ferry,  but  nearly  4,oco  were  captured. 
The  fleeing  men  created  a  panic  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
caused  a  profound  sensation  in  the  North. 

Hooker  learned  on  the  12th  that  Ewell's  corps  had 
passed  Sperryville,  and  on  the  following  day  he  moved 
the  2d,  6th,  and  12th  corps  to  Fairfax  Court-House. 

When   Hill  saw  that  the  Unionists  had  withdrawn  he 


234  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

joined  Longstreet  at  Culpepper.  Pleasanton  was  still 
watching  Stuart  near  Warrenton. 

Evvell  pushed  his  troopers  as  far  forward  as  Williams- 
port  on  the  Potomac.  The  population  of  the  neighbor- 
ing Maryland  towns  fled  in  terror,  carrying  off  their  valua- 
bles and  driving  their  herds  before  them  on  their  way  to 
Harrisburg.  The  greatest  excitement  prevailed  in  that 
city. 

On  June  i6th  Jenkins' troopers  entered  Greencastle,  the 
first  Pennsylvania  village  and  then  marched  forward  to 
Chambersburg.  The  Northern  farmers  now  had  an  expe- 
rience with  which  their  Southern  countrymen  were  en- 
tirely familiar.  Horses,  cattle,  fodder,  and  provisions 
were  confiscated,  or,  what  was  as  bad,  paid  for  in  Confed- 
erate money.  Free  negroes  were  seized  and  sent  South 
to  be  sold  as  slaves.  There  was,  however,  no  plundering 
or  bad  behavior  on  the  part  of  the  soldiers. 

This  was  as  far  as  Jenkins  dared  go,  and  he  returned  to 
Williamsport,  where  Ewell  was  awaiting  the  arrival  of  the 
two  other  corps. 

In  order  to  learn  clearly  what  Lee  intended  to  do 
Hooker  sent  Pleasanton  to  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Ridge, 
with  instructions  that  if  he  did  not  meet  the  enemy  to 
push  forward  by  way  of  Leesburg  to  Harper's  Ferry. 

This  was  on  June  i/th,  and  on  the  same  day  Stuart 
hastened  to  occupy  the  passes  of  the  Bull  Run  Mountains. 
The  two  forces  were  therefore  moving  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, and  they  met  near  Aldie,  where  Kilpatrick,  with  the 
Second  New  York,  at  once  charged  Munford's  brigade  and 
drove  it  before  him.  Col.  Duffie's  division  surprised  Stuart 
at  Middleburg,  and  gave  him  barely  time  to  make  his 
escape.  Stuart  returned  with  Robertson's  brigade  and 
forced  Duffie  to  fall  back. 

These  minor  engagements  showed  the  direction  in  which 
the  greater  portion  of  Lee's  army  was  moving,  and  caused 
Hooker  to  move  his  army  westward  that  he  might  be  pre- 


BATTLE   OF  GETTYSBURG.  235 

pared  to  cross  the  Blue  Ridge  or  the  Potomac,  as  might 
be  required. 

It  was  not  long  before  Pleasanton  and  Stuart  were 
fighting  again.  On  the  19th  the  former  attacked  Stuart 
at  Middleburg  and  drove  him  out.  This  victory  was  fol- 
lowed up,  and  Stuart  was  driven  back  eight  miles  to  Up- 
perville.  The  Union  scouts  were  now  able  to  climb  the 
peaks  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  where  they  had  a  full  view  of  the 
whole  lower  valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  and  saw  Ewell's 
corps  marching  towards  the  Potomac. 

On  the  2 1st  Lee  ordered  Ewell  to  march  on  Harrisburg, 
and  on  the  23d  sent  the  other  two  corps  forward.  They 
passed  into  Pennsylvania,  and  requisitions  of  every  kind 
followed.  The  Confederates,  accustomed  to  their  impov- 
erished lands,  were  amazed  at  the  richness  of  the  country. 
They  were  able  to  fit  themselves  out  anew  with  every  thing 
they  needed.  Ewell  reached  Carlisle  on  the  27th  and  his 
scouts  reconnoitred  Harrisburg,  where  the  citizens  were 
making  desperate  preparations  for  defence. 

As  Lee  was  marching  away  from  Washington,  it  was 
necessary  to  guard  his  flank  from  an  attack  from  that 
quarter,  and  Early  was  sent  east  of  the  mountains.  On 
June  26th  he  bivouacked  at  Gettysburg,  after  driving  out 
a  thousand  Pennsylvania  militia.  Gordon  pushed  forward 
to  cross  the  big  wooden  bridge  at  Wrightsville,  but  it  was 
burned  before  he  could  do  so. 

When  Hooker  learned  of  the  arrival  of  Ewell  at  Hagers- 
town,  he  sent  three  army  corps  to  Poolesville  to  hold  the 
left  bank  of  the  Potomac  and  to  guard  W^ishington,  and 
he  prepared  to  follow  Lee  into  Maryland  with  the  remain- 
der of  his  army.  He  crossed  the  Potomac  on  the  26th, 
and  the  two  armies  were  now  only  40  miles  apart.  Lee 
heard  nothing  of  this  movement.  He  relied  on  Stuart  for 
information,  but  that  enthusiastic  officer  had  started  off 
on  a  raid  of  his  own,  and  was  out  of  reach.  Stuart  pro- 
posed to  make  a  circuit  of  the  Federal  army  by  passing 


236  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

between  it  and  Washington.  He  might  have  succeeded 
if  the  army  had  been  stationary,  but  it  was  on  the  move 
and  he  had  frequent  encounters  with  detached  bodies. 
He  had  fights  at  Haymarket  with  the  2d  corps,  pushed 
on  and  crossed  the  Potomac  at  Dranesville,  entered 
Maryland  and  destroyed  the  canal,  captured  a  large  supply 
train  at  Rockville,  and  then  moved  on  towards  Hanover, 
where  he  had  hopes  of  finding  Early.  Here  he  met 
Pleasanton's  cavalry  and  a  sharp  fight  followed.  Night 
came  on,  and  Stuart,  by  a  forced  march,  reached  Dover, 
and  then  passed  on  to  Carlisle,  where  he  arrived  on  July 
1st,  only  to  find  that  Early  had  gone.  His  men  and 
horses  were  worn  out,  and  he  had  done  no  real  harm  to 
the  enemy.  Orders  here  reached  him  to  march  immedi- 
ately on  Gettysburg,  where  the  battle  had  begun.  When 
Lee  learned  that  Hooker  had  crossed  the  Potomac  he 
determined  to  push  on  towards  Baltimore,  so  as  to  threaten 
its  communication  with  the  North  and  compel  the  Union 
army  to  follow  him.  He  hoped  to  lead  them  to  the  north, 
and  possibly  to  engage  them  near  Philadelphia.  With 
this  intent  he  directed  his  three  army  corps  to  assemble 
at  Gettysburg,  having  no  reason  to  suppose  that  Meade 
was  moving  in  that  direction. 

Ewell  was  recalled  from  before  Harrisburg,  and  marched 
to  Scotland  on  a  road  connecting  with  the  Gettysburg 
turnpike.  Longstreet's  corps  moved  forward  from 
Chambersburg  and  Hill's  corps  from  Fayetteville.  On 
June  30th,  Pettigrew's  brigade  pushed  on  to  Gettysburg 
and  was  about  to  enter  the  place,  when  Buford's  advance 
compelled  him  to  fall  back.  Hill  then  advanced  on 
Gettysburg  with  his  whole  division. 

Hooker  was  preparing  to  follow  Lee,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded in  command  by  General  Meade,  who  made  no 
change  in  the  plans.  His  first  idea  was  to  prevent  Lee 
from  crossing  the  Susquehanna  and  marching  on  Balti- 
more, and  to  do  this  he  hurried  the  army  forward  and 


SCALE   OF   MILES 


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GETTYSBURG   CAMPAIGN   MAP. 


237 


238  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

took  positions  at  Emmettsburg,  Taneytown,  and  Frizzell- 
burg,  and  so  held  the  whole  breadth  of  the  valley.  Pleas- 
anton's  cavalry  covered  the  march  and  watched  the  move- 
ments of  the  enemy.  Meade  had  now  learned  of  Lee's 
intention  to  concentrate  at  Gettysburg,  and  he  made 
preparations  for  battle. 

The  two  armies  were  moving  towards  one  point  and 
they  must  soon  meet.  Lee  did  not  know  that  Meade 
also  proposed  to  concentrate  his  forces  at  Gettysburg. 
The  coincidence  was  quite  accidental,  and  it  brought  on 
the  conflict  between  the  two  armies  earlier  than  had  been 
expected. 

A  description  of  the  surroundings  of  Gettysburg  will 
be  of  value  in  understanding  the  details  of  one  of  the 
bloodiest  and  most  important  battles  of  modern  times. 
The  battle-field  is  between  two  small  streams,  Willoughby 
Run  and  Rock  Creek,  to  the  west  and  east,  respectively,  of 
the  city.  The  ground  is  broken  up  by  two  groups  of  hills, 
each  with  three  ridges,  of  which  the  central  one  is  the 
highest.  In  the  first  group,  northwest  of  Gettysburg,  are 
Oak  Hill,  Seminary  Hill,  and  the  Seminary  Ridge  running 
north  and  south.  The  second  group  is  to  the  southeast 
of  the  first.  It  starts  with  Cemetery  Hill,  and  runs  along 
as  Cemetery  Ridge  until  it  suddenly  rises  again  and  forms 
the  hills  called  Round  Top  and  Little  Round  Top. 
Gettysburg  is  situated  in  the  valley  between  these  two 
groups,  and  its  streets  run  to  the  base  of  Cemetery  Hill. 
It  is  naturally  the  centre  of  all  roads,  so  that  three  turn- 
pikes and  seven  other  roads  pass  into  the  town.  East  of 
Cemetery  Hill  is  Gulp's  Hill,  well  wooded. 

Suspecting  that  the  Confederates  might  move  to  Gettys- 
burg, Meade  directed  Buford  to  occupy  the  place  and 
defend  it  until  the  arrival  of  the  ist  corps.  Buford 
reached  there  just  in  time  to  frighten  away  Pettigrew's 
brigade.  He  soon  learned  that  Hill  was  advancing  on 
him  in  force,  and  perceived  the  advantage  in  holding  the 


BATTLE    OF   GETTYSBURG.  239 

strong  positions  around  Gettysburg.  He  dismounted  his 
men  and  deployed  them  as  infantry  in  such  positions  as 
would  best  conceal  their  numerical  weakness.  Of  his  4,200 
men,  one  quarter  had  to  be  withdrawn  to  look  after  the 
horses,  so  that  really  only  about  3,000  were  prepared  to 
oppose  Lee's  advance.  They  were  disposed  in  a  circular 
arc  from  west  to  northeast  of  Gettysburg,  with  Gamble's 
brigade  on  the  left  and  Devin's  on  the  right. 

On  the  morning  of  July  ist  Buford's  scouts  reported 
that  Heth's  division  (Confederate)  was  rapidly  advancing 
from  the  direction  of  Cashtown.  The  battle  was  immi- 
nent. Heth  deployed  his  two  advance  brigades  south  of 
the  Chambersburg  road,  and  at  eight  o'clock  his  line,  pre- 
ceded by  skirmishers,  passed  down  the  slopes  on  the 
right  bank  of  Willoughby  Run.  Buford  opened  fire,  and  a 
fierce  struggle  followed  on  the  banks  of  the  stream.  Bu- 
ford's fire  was  so  well  sustained  that  Heth  thought  he  had 
an  infantry  corps  opposed  to  him.  This  idea  prevented 
him  from  advancing  to  take  possession  of  Gettysburg  and 
he  waited  for  Pender's  troops  to  reinforce  him. 

Buford  was  terribly  overmatched,  and  realizing  that  he 
could  not  resist  much  longer,  he  eagerly  watched  the  Em- 
mettsburg  road  for  signs  of  Reynolds.  Hill  and  Pender 
were  pushing  forward,  when  the  signalman  stationed  in 
the  belfry  of  the  seminary  on  Seminary  Hill  discovered 
a  large  column  of  infantry  moving  forward  on  the  Em- 
mettsburg  road  where  only  friends  could  come. 

It  was  Reynolds  whom  the  sound  of  battle  had  hurried 
forward  at  his  utmost  speed.  Wadsworth's  division  soon 
followed.  Reynolds  rode  on  ahead  and  met  Buford  on 
the  stairs  of  the  belfry.  A  moment  sufificed  to  tell  of  the 
critical  situation.  Reynolds  ordered  Wadsworth's  divi- 
sion to  relieve  Gamble's  men,  who  had  suffered  greatly. 
He  sent  word  to  the  other  two  divisions  to  hasten,  and 
also  notified  Howard,  requesting  him  to  hurry  forward 
with  the  I  ith  corps. 


240  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

There  were  still  far  too  few  troops  on  the  ground  to 
resist  the  Confederate  army  for  any  length  of  time,  but 
Reynolds  determined  to  hold  it  in  check  as  long  as 
possible,  until  help  could  come.  He  led  his  troops  down 
the  Cashtown  road,  to  cut  off  all  passage  there.  Mere- 
dith made  a  dash  for  the  wood  where  Archer  had  entered, 
and  Reynolds  hastened  to  join  the  Iron  Brigade  in  its 
attack. 

While  encouraging  the  soldiers.  General  Reynolds  was 
shot  through  the  head  and  fell  dead.  He  was  one  of  the 
ablest  of  Meade's  officers,  and  his  death  was  a  great  loss 
to  the  national  cause. 

It  was  then  10.45.  Meredith  advanced  with  such  ra- 
pidity that  he  captured  one  thousand  prisoners,  and  drove 
the  enemy  down  the  slope  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet. 
Wadsworth's  three  regiments  were  attacked  by  Davis,  and 
compelled  to  fall  back  to  the  Oak  Hill  Ridge,  where  they 
took  shelter  in  a  thick  wood.  Doubleday  sent  the  Sixth 
Wisconsin  to  them,  and,  by  a  sharp  attack  on  Davis'  lines 
threw  them  into  confusion,  and  captured  two  entire  regi- 
ments with  their  colors. 

Heth  moved  up  to  take  the  place  of  Archer  and  Davis, 
while  Doubleday  formed  his  lines  anew  and  awaited  events. 
He  was  gladdened  by  the  arrival  of  Rowley  and  Robin- 
son's divisions. 

The  Confederate  army  now  moved  forward  again. 
Brockenbrough  tried  to  out-flank  Biddle  on  the  left,  while 
Pettigrew  hurled  himself  on  Stone.  The  latter's  brigade 
was  formed  of  Pennsylvania  lumbermen,  called  "  Buck- 
tails,"  from  the  ornaments  attached  to  their  hats.  They 
were  fighting  on  their  native  soil,  and  this  filled  them 
with  an  enthusiasm  which  laughed  at  death.  Their  posi- 
tion was  exposed,  and  many  were  slain,  but  they  held 
their  ground  and  shouted  "  We  've  come  to  stay." 

It  was  no  use  attacking  such  men  as  these,  and  the 
Confederates  again    fell  back   discomfited.     An  artillery 


BATTLE   OF  GETTYSBURG.  24 1 

duel  followed,  and  as  the  Confederates  had  far  more  guns, 
the  Union  army  got  the  worst  of  it. 

Howard,  with  his  three  divisions,  was  now  hurrying 
from  Emmettsburg.  He  rode  on  ahead,  and  found  that 
by  the  death  of  Reynolds  the  command  had  fallen  into 
his  hands.  He  also  realized  the  importance  of  holding 
the  town,  and  sent  urgent  instructions  to  the  3d  and 
iith  corps  to  push  forward.  The  latter  arrived  at  12.45 
o'clock,  Schurz  leading  with  his  division.  Rodes'  Con- 
federate division  made  a  detour,  and  came  in  from  the 
north  to  take  possession  of  Oak  Hill.  Howard  prepared 
for  the  attack  by  sending  Schimmelpfennig's  division,  into 
the  woods  of  Oak  Hill,  with  two  batteries  of  artillery. 

At  2.15  Rodes  advanced  and  occupied  Oak  Hill  before 
Schimmelpfennig  could  get  there  ;  he  immediately  opened 
fire  on  the  Union  line  with  five  batteries.  Schurz,  who 
had  succeeded  Howard  in  command  of  the  iith  corps, 
pushed  on  to  intercept  him.  Three  of  Rodes'  brigades 
crossed  the  Mummasburg  road  and  attacked  Cutler's 
troops ;  O'Neil  attacked  Baxter  and  was  repulsed  with 
heavy  loss.  Iverson  fell  savagely  on  Robinson's  two  bri- 
gades, only  to  find  that  he  had  run  into  a  trap.  Cutler 
moved  from  the  wood  and  took  him  on  the  flank.  The 
Confederates  fought  bravely,  but  they  were  overmatched, 
many  were  killed  and  more  than  one  thousand  were  taken 
prisoners.  Daniel  came  up  too  late  to  save  Iverson,  but 
threw  himself  from  the  north  on  Stone  at  the  railway  cut, 
and  drove  him  out  of  it.  Brockenbrough  attempted  to 
drive  Meredith  from  McPherson's  wood  but  was  himself 
routed. 

It  was  2.45  o'clock,  and  the  Confederates  had  been  re- 
pulsed all  along  the  line,  but  the  battle  had  now  reached 
a  turning  point  and  was  soon  to  assume  a  different  aspect. 

Daniel  was  reinforced  by  Ramseur,  and  Heth  by  three 
brigades  of  Pender's  division, — fresh  men  who  had  not  been 
under  fire  that  day. 


242  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

The  first  national  misfortune  of  the  day  fell  to  Schim- 
melpfennig's  division.  His  two  brigades  advancing  near 
the  Oak  Hill  slopes  were  battered  on  the  flank  by  Rodes' 
artillery,  and  thrown  into  great  disorder.  Dole's  division 
fell  upon  them  and  drove  them  for  some  distance.  Early's 
division  advanced  on  the  Heidlersburg  road,  and  its  artil- 
lery opened  fire  on  Barlow  who  was  trying  to  relieve 
Schimmelpfennig.  Gordon's  brigade  charged  on  Von  Gil- 
sa's  position,  and  forced  him  and  Barlow  back  at  the  point 
of  the  bayonet ;  Hays  and  Hoke  took  them  on  the  flank, 
and  the  retreat  became  a  rout.  Howard  ordered  the  i  ith 
corps  to  retreat,  but  it  had  already  been  driven  back. 

Pender  fell  with  his  whole  division  on  the  tired  and  de- 
pleted brigades  of  Stone,  Meredith,  and  Biddle.  Ramseur's 
brigade,  with  the  remnants  of  Iverson's  and  O'Neil's  bri- 
gades, and  supported  by  a  heavy  fire  of  artillery,  descended 
on  Robinson,  whom  the  retreat  of  the  nth  corps  had 
left  isolated.  Robinson  fell  back  on  the  wood  occupied 
by  Cutler.  Doubleday's  men  were  outnumbered  and  over- 
powered and  he  recalled  them  to  Seminary  Hill,  and, 
joined  by  Biddle's  men,  they  stationed  themselves  in  the 
trenches  which  had  been  thrown  up  around  the  seminary. 
Supported  by  a  few  cannon  they  succeeded  in  checking 
the  advance  of  the  enemy. 

Howard  saw  that  this  resistance  could  not  be  main- 
tained. It  was  useful  only  in  assisting  the  retreat.  He 
ordered  the  abandonment  of  Seminary  Hill,  and  as  the 
1st  corps,  with  ranks  greatly  thinned,  marched  down  the 
eastern  slopes.  Hill  occupied  the  position.  Doubleday 
found  Gettysburg  filled  with  the  fugitives  of  Barlow's  and 
Schimmelpfennig's  divisions.  Their  condition  was  very 
perilous,  as  Ewell  was  advancing  on  the  town  from  the  east- 
ward. Howard  abandoned  the  town  and  fell  back  on 
Cemetery  Hill.  The  ist  corps  reached  there  safely,  all  but 
Stone's  brigade,  which  was  mixed  up  with  the  fugitives  in 
the  streets  of  the  town.    The  Confederates  dashed  in  with 


BATTLE   OF  GETTYSBURG.  243 

a  rush,  the  fugitives  scattered  in  every  direction,  but  nearly 
4,000  were  taken  prisoners.  General  Schimmelpfennig  hid 
himself  under  a  load  of  wood  and  so  managed  to  escape. 
Ewell  found  two  cannon  abandoned  in  the  streets. 

The  national  troops  were  now  in  a  very  critical  situa- 
tion. With  16,500  men  against  22,000  Confederates,  they 
had  made  a  good  fight.  They  had  now  only  five  thou- 
sand fighting  men  left.  Five  thousand  had  been  taken 
prisoners,  four  thousand  were  dead  or  wounded,  and  the 
rest  were  scattered.  The  latter  hurried  to  Taneytown 
and  Westminster,  and  greatly  discouraged  the  regiments 
which  were  moving  up  from  that  direction. 

The  Union  forces  were  thus  routed  and  disorganized, 
and  in  actual  danger  of  complete  extermination  when  a 
new  factor  appeared  on  the  field.  Hancock  arrived  at 
four  o'clock.  Meade,  on  learning  of  the  serious  nature  of 
the  battle,  had  hurried  him  forward  to  take  the  place  of 
the  slain  Reynolds.  He  assumed  command  and  at  once 
sought  to  restore  order.  The  iith  corps  reformed 
around  Von  Steinwehr  on  Cemetery  Hill.  Wadsworth 
was  stationed  on  Culp's  Hill  and  Doubleday  on  the  left. 
These  manoeuvres  consumed  an  hour.  Lee  might  easily 
have  prevented  it,  but  he  was  cautious  and  waited  for  the 
rest  of  his  army  to  arrive.  He  could  see  that  Howard 
was  well  intrenched  on  Cemetery  Hill,  and  supposed  that 
reinforcements  must  have  arrived.  In  truth  they  did  not 
arrive  until  5.15  P.M.,  when  Sickles  and  Rirney  came  up 
from  Emmettsburg  with  a  division  of  the  3d  corps. 
Graham  and  Ward's  brigades  followed,  and  soon  after- 
wards Slocum  appeared  with  the  12th  corps.  Slocum 
started  to  occupy  Wolf's  Hill,  but  gave  up  the  idea  when 
he  learned  that  the  enemy  held  Gettysburg.  Geary's 
division  arrived  at  Cemetery  Hill  at  5. 30. 

Slocum  assumed  the  command,  and  Hancock  went  to 
Taneytown  to  inform  Meade  of  the  situation.  Meade 
had  already  determined  to  concentrate  his  army  between 


244  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Gettysburg  and  Taneytown.  Hancock  met  the  2d 
corps  marching  towards  Gettysburg.  The  5th  corps 
was  marching  from  Union,  and  the  6th  from  Man- 
chester. 

Meade  hastened  to  Gettysburg,  arrived  at  Cemetery 
Hill  at  I  A.M.,  and  at  once  began  preparations  for  the 
great  battle  which  must  follow  in  the  morning.  He  real- 
ized the  full  importance  of  the  result.  If  he  was  defeated, 
the  North  was  open  to  invasion,  and  Philadelphia  and 
Baltimore  would  be  liable  to  capture. 

It  was  the  morning  of  the  2d  of  July — a  date  which 
is  now  borne  by  thousands  of  white  headstones  in  the 
national  cemetery  at  Gettysburg.  The  midsummer  sun 
rose  about  four  o'clock  and  Meade  was  able  to  survey  the 
field  more  clearly.  All  of  the  army  that  had  not  arrived 
was  pushing  on  by  forced  marches  and  was  expected  very 
shortly.  By  nine  o'clock  they  were  all  present,  excepting 
15,000  men  of  the  6th  corps  who  were  sure  to  arrive 
before  the  day  was  over.  The  1st  and  iith  corps  still 
occupied  their  old  positions  on  Cemetery  Hill.  The 
2d  w'as  on  the  left  of  the  1st.  Hay's  division  was 
on  the  right,  resting  on  Ziegler's  grove;  Gibbon's  division 
was  in  the  centre.  Caldwell's  division  extended  along  the 
water-line  between  Plum  Run  and  Rock  Creek.  The 
3d  corps  was  also  on  the  left.  The  left  of  the  army 
rested  on  the  Round  Tops,  which  were  farthest  to  the 
south,  the  centre  on  Cemetery  Hill  and  Cemetery  Ridge, 
and  the  right  on  Gulp's  Hill.  The  "  Orchard"  hill  to  the 
northeast  of  the  Round  Tops  was  a  commanding  position, 
as  it  w^ould  prevent  the  enemy  from  making  a  flank  move- 
ment on  the  left,  but  it  was  weak  in  other  respects,  as  it 
was  commanded  by  Seminary  Hill  on  the  north,  and  by 
the  Warfield  Ridge  on  the  west. 

The  right  on  Gulp's  Hill  was  nearest  the  enemy,  and 
seemed  to  be  in  the  most  danger.  Meade  sent  Geary  to 
occupy  the  slopes  of  Gulp's  Hill   to  the   right   of  Wads- 


245 


246  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

worth.  Sickles  occupied  the  positions  on  the  slopes  of 
Little  Round  Top,  but  owing  to  some  misunderstanding 
of  orders  he  did  not  occupy  the  summit. 

Lee  was  also  busy  in  gathering  his  forces.  Early  was 
in  the  centre,  facing  the  ridge  which  connects  Gulp's  Hill 
with  Cemetery  Hill,  Ewell  was  on  the  left  with  Johnson, 
who  was  on  Benner's  Hill,  Rodes  was  occupying  the  town 
at  the  foot  of  Cemetery  Hill,  his  right  touching  the  3d 
corps  on  Seminary  Hill.  Pender  was  on  the  left  above 
the  seminary,  Heth  on  the  right,  along  the  ridge.  The 
other  divisions  not  yet  placed  were  marching  towardsthe 
town  from  the  north.  By  nine  o'clock  the  army  was  all 
there,  excepting  Stuart's  cavalry  and  6,000  men  of  Pick- 
ett's and  Law's  divisions  who  were  on  the  way. 

The  early  part  of  the  day  was  wasted  in  preparations, 
and  Meade,  astonished  at  this  delay,  took  advantage  of  it 
to  strengthen  his  lines.  Sickles,  not  liking  his  position, 
moved  forward  and  took  possession  of  the  Emmettsburg 
road  as  far  as  the  peach  orchard,  whose  exposed  position 
has  already  been  described.  To  extend  his  line  to  cover 
his  new  position  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  the  slopes  of 
Little  Round  Top,  which  was  thus  left  entirely  unprotect- 
ed. Ward  occupied  the  wood  which  covered  the  flank  of 
Devil's  Den,  with  his  left  on  Plum  Run  and  his  right  run- 
ning to  the  summit  of  the  wheat  field.  De  Trobriand's 
line  connected  him  with  Graham,  who  was  on  the  summit 
of  the  hillock.  Humphreys  covered  the  right  of  the 
division. 

Lee  ordered  Longstreet  to  attack  the  Union  army  on 
the  right  wing,  the  point  where  they  least  expected  it.  At 
half-past  three  o'clock  Longstreet  moved  forward.  The 
battle  opened  with  an  artillery  duel  between  the  Union 
batteries  in  the  orchard  and  the  Confederate  batteries  in  the 
Warfield  woods.  Wilcox  threw  out  skirmishers  on  one 
side,  and  Graham  on  the  other,  and  the  rattle  of  musketry 
soon  became  continuous.    Meade  visited  Sickles'  position. 


BATTLE   OF  GETTYSBURG.  247 

and  seeing  its  weak  points,  directed  General  Warren  to 
support  him.  Law  moved  on  Little  Round  Top,  and 
Robertson  on  Devil's  Den.  They  advanced  with  the 
Southern  yell,  and  attacked  Ward,  who  resisted  them 
with  five  regiments.  A  savage  struggle  on  the  slopes  fol- 
lowed. Ward  was  falling  back,  when  he  was  assisted  by 
De  Trobriand,  who  took  Robertson  on  the  flank.  The 
First  Texas,  which  threatened  to  capture  Smith's  battery, 
was  driven  back  with  great  slaughter.  Anderson  advanced 
to  strike  De  Trobriand's  centre,  was  repulsed  and  in 
danger  of  capture,  when  he  was  saved  by  the  arrival  of 
Benning,  whose  three  brigades  renewed  the  attack  with 
great  vigor.  Ward  and  De  Trobriand,  assisted  by  Smith's 
and  Winslow's  batteries,  contested  every  foot  of  the  way, 
but  they  were  over-matched  and  began  to  fall  back. 

Law  made  a  dash  for  the  Round  Tops  with  his  Texas 
and  Alabama  veterans.  The  Fourth  Maine,  Fortieth 
New  York,  and  Sixth  New  Jersey  were  waiting  him  in 
ambuscade,  and  resisted  stoutly.  All  to  no  use,  however, 
as  the  Confederate  veterans  advanced  steadily.  Ward 
weakened  his  line  in  supporting  the  retreat,  and  this  forced 
De  Trobriand  to  extend  his  left,  leaving  only  two  small 
regiments  in  his  centre.  They  managed  to  repel  Ander- 
son's second  assault,  but  fell  back  before  Benning,  who 
captured  three  pieces  of  Smith's  artillery. 

In  the  meantime  McLaw's  division  was  moving  across 
the  Emmettsburg  road.  At  5.30  Kershaw  attacked  the 
wooded  hill  occupied  by  De  Trobriand's  centre,  and  the 
Confederate  guns  fired  from  the  Warfield  Ridge  against 
Humphreys'  and  Graham's  brigades.  Kershaw  met 
Sweitzer's  and  Tilton's  brigades,  which  Sykes  had  sent 
forward  to  reinforce  De  Trobriand,  and  drove  them  back 
in  confusion.  Warren,  following  Meade's  instructions, 
climbed  Little  Round  Top,  and  surveyed  the  country. 
He  saw  the  Confederates  advancing  to  capture  it,  and 
knew    that     it    was    undefended.     Directing    the    signal 


248  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

officers  to  remain  on  the  crest  so  as  to  make  the  enemy 
beUeve  that  it  was  defended,  he  hastened  after  the  3d 
brigade  of  Ayres'  division,  which  he  saw  moving  some 
distance  awa}-.  Weed,  who  was  in  command,  directed 
Colonel  O'Rorke  to  lead  the  One  Hundred  and  Fortieth 
New  York  to  the  summit  and  defend  it  at  all  hazards. 

Colonel  Vincent  with  Barnes'  3d  brigade  had  just 
reached  the  southern  slope  of  Little  Round  Top,  and  was 
preparing  to  oppose  Law's  advance.  A  moment  later 
Hood's  soldiers  dashed  forward  with  a  yell  and  attacked 
him.  Vincent's  men  were  well  sheltered  behind  rocks 
and  made  a  vigorous  resistance.  Law  swooped  down  on 
his  left,  and  driving  the  Sixth  Michigan  before  him, 
pressed  on  to  the  summit.  Fortunately  O'Rorke's  sol- 
diers, going  at  full  run,  reached  the  summit  a  moment 
before  him.  Before  they  had  time  to  catch  their  breath 
or  form  in  line  of  battle.  Law  was  upon  them. 

O'Rorke  ordered  a  charge,  and  his  men  dashed  forward 
amid  a  sharp  musketry  fire,  and  captured  some  of  the 
foremost  men  of  the  enemy.  Vincent  came  to  their  assist- 
ance, and  Hood  was  checked.  O'Rorke  and  many  of  his 
men  were  killed,  but  Little  Round  Top  was  saved.  Haz- 
lett's  battery  had  been  dragged  to  the  summit  by  the 
most  extraordinary  exertions,  but  the  guns  could  not  be 
depressed  to  reach  the  enemy  on  the  slope,  so  Hazlett 
shelled  the  Confederate  reserve  in  the  valley.  Law  re- 
newed his  attack  on  the  summit,  and  was  repulsed  by 
Vincent,  who  fell  in  the  defence. 

Sweitzer  and  Tilton  were  retreating  before  Kershaw, 
and  Ward  and  DeTrobriand  before  Benning.  The  hill  of 
Devil's  Den  was  abandoned,  strewn  with  corpses.  Smith 
saved  his  three  remaining  guns  with  great  difificulty.  The 
Confederates  drove  Winslow's  battery  from  the  wheat  field 
and  threatened  De  Trobriand's  rear.  The  latter,  assailed 
in  front  by  Anderson,  and  out-flanked  by  Kershaw,  re- 
treated with  greatly  thinned  ranks.     The   Eighth    South 


BATTLE   OF  GETTYSBURG.  249 

Carolina  dashed  for  Clark's  and  Bigelow's  guns,  and  were 
repulsed  by  the  One  Hundred  and  Forty-first  Pennsyl- 
vania. Just  then  Caldwell's  division  of  the  2d  corps 
arrived,  having  been  hurried  forward  by  Meade.  Cross' 
brigade  supported  De  Trobriand,  and  Kelly's  brigade 
supported  Ward.  The  latter  was  Meagher's  old  Irish 
brigade ;  it  rushed  into  the  fight  with  its  well-known  gal- 
lantr}^  and  at  once  stopped  Anderson's  advance.  Cross 
advanced  against  Kershaw,  and  forced  him  back  on  Sem- 
mes'  brigade.  Cross  was  killed.  Semmes'  fresh  troops  re- 
turned the  attack  but  were  met  by  Caldwell's  second  line, 
composed  of  Zook's  and  Brook's  brigades,  and  driven 
back  with  Kershaw  to  the  other  side  of  the  ravine. 

Weed  relieved  O'Rorke's  tired  men,  and  reached  the 
summit  of  Little  Round  Top  just  as  Vincent  fell.  Law 
pushed  forward  to  a  third  attack,  and  tried  to  out-flank 
the  Union  line  by  way  of  the  eastern  side  of  the  ridge. 
He  was  met  by  the  hardy  backwoodsmen  of  the  Twentieth 
Maine  and  forced  back  in  a  hand-to-hand  encounter. 

The  field  of  battle  now  grew  more  extensive.  McLaws 
advanced  against  the  orchard,  which  Graham  occupied 
with  two  brigades.  Barksdale  attacked  the  west  flank  and 
Wofford  the  south  front. 

Graham  found  himself  in  a  very  hot  position,  and  his 
loss  was  great.  He  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  and 
his  troops  were  driven  from  the  orchard  and  down  the  slope. 
Sickles  hastened  to  his  aid,  when  a  bullet  struck  him  in  the 
leg  and  he  was  forced  to  transfer  the  command  to  Birney. 

The  Union  batteries  on  the  right,  along  the  Emmetts- 
burg  road,  retired  sullenly,  firing  as  they  went.  Barksdale, 
following  up  his  victory,  pushed  in  between  Humphreys 
and  Barnes,  while  Wofford  attacked  their  flank  on  the  east. 
Anderson's  three  brigades  moved  against  Humphreys' 
front.  Humphreys  retreated  with  his  two  brigades  in  good 
order.  He  left  nearly  half  of  his  men  dead  and  wounded 
on  the  field. 


250  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Wofford  attacked  Tilton's  division  and  forced  it  back. 
Kershaw  and  Semmes  again  assailed  Sweitzer  and  Zook 
and  drove  them  out  of  the  wood.  Zook  was  killed  and 
there  was  a  great  loss  in  the  rank  and  file  of  his  command. 
Finally  the  Union  troops  were  pushed  in  disorder  to  the 
left  bank  of  Plum  Run.  Bigelow's  battery,  unsupported, 
took  position  in  front  of  the  Trostle  House,  and  fired 
canister  until  nearly  all  the  gunners  and  80  out  of  88 
horses  were  killed.     The  guns  were  captured. 

Ayres  with  Day's  and  Burbank's  brigades  occupied  the 
crest  of  Devil's  Den,  and  sustained  the  attack  of  Hood 
and  McLaws.  He  retired  slowly,  losing  nearly  half  his 
men,  and  took  position  on  the  northern  base  of  Little 
Round  Top.  Fighting  had  gone  on  continuously  on  the 
summit.  Weed  was  shot  down,  and  Hazlett,  bending  over 
to  speak  to  him,  was  mortally  wounded.  Many  other 
superior  ofificers  were  either  killed  or  wounded,  but  the 
men  held  their  positions  until  the  enemy  was  worn  out. 
Colonel  Chamberlain  then  charged,  drove  them  back,  and 
captured  three  hundred  prisoners.  Just  then  Crawford 
arrived  with  McCandless'  brigade  and  assisted  in  driving 
the  enemy  to  the  other  side  of  Plum  Run.  Ayres'  posi- 
tion deterred  them  from  making  a  fresh  attack  on  Little 
Round  Top. 

There  was  danger  of  Barksdale  and  Wofford  separating 
the  Union  left  from  the  rest  of  the  army.  They  advanced 
rapidly,  driving  every  thing  before  them.  To  fill  in  the 
gap  Hancock  despatched  two  regiments  of  Hay's  division 
and  one  of  Willard's  brigades.  Alexander's  Confederate 
batteries  were  shelling  Humphreys'  lines,  and  McGilvery's 
brigade  of  artillery  established  itself  on  the  left  bank  of 
Plum  Run  and  replied  with  vigor.  Aided  by  Hancock's 
artillery  it  retarded  the  Confederate  movements.  Meade, 
realizing  the  danger,  hurried  to  the  field,  and  directed  re- 
inforcements to  hasten  from  the  right.  Williams'  division. 
General  Lockwood's  two  regiments,  Candy's  brigade,  and 


BATTLE   OF  GETTYSBURG.  25  I 

Bartlett's  brigade  all  pushed  forward  to  the  rescue.  United 
they  were  superior  in  number  to  the  enemy  in  front  of  the 
position,  but  there  was  danger  of  their  being  beaten  in  de- 
tail as  they  arrived. 

Anderson's  three  brigades  continued  their  advance,  con- 
fident of  victory.     But  the  way  was  not  an  easy  one. 

Meade  in  person  led  Lockwood's  soldiers  at  the  left 
against  him,  in  the  wood  north  of  the  Millerstown  road,  and 
McCandless'  brigade  supported  him.  Bartlett's,  Eustis', 
and  Nevin's  brigades  of  the  6th  corps  arrived  and  reinforced 
the  5th  on  the  line  between  Little  Round  Top  and  Mc- 
Gilvery's  battery. 

Barksdale  and  many  of  his  men  fell  before  one  of  Bur- 
ling's  regiments.  Wilcox  scaled  the  slopes  and  attacked 
Humphreys  and  Gibbon.  Wright  captured  a  battery  on 
the  edge  of  a  wood  above  Gibbon's  front.  Webb's  bri- 
gade dashed  forward,  destroyed  two  thirds  of  his  division 
and  recaptured  the  battery.  Wilcox  was  taken  in  flank 
by  McGilvery's  artillery,  and  was  vigorously  met  by 
Humphreys  and  Hancock.  He  lost  a  third  of  his  men  and 
withdrew  to  the  Emmettsburg  road.  The  attack  had  been 
a  failure  all  along  the  line.  If  it  had  been  supported  by 
Posey's,  Mahone's,  or  Pender's  divisions  the  result  might 
have  been  far  different. 

While  this  desperate  fighting  was  taking  place  on  the 
left,  Ewell  was  not  idle  on  the  right.  His  orders  were  to 
move  forward  when  he  heard  Longstreet's  guns,  but  owing 
to  a  contrary  wind  he  did  not  hear  them  until  five  o'clock. 
His  six  batteries  on  Benner's  Hill  opened  against  the 
Union  entrenchment  on  Gulp's  Hill,  but  being  entirely 
unprotected,  were  quickly  silenced.  Johnson  attempted 
to  turn  the  Union  position  on  Gulp's  Hill  by  moving  in 
the  gorges  of  Rock  Greek  on  the  southeast.  The  12th 
corps  was  abandoning  this  position,  and  on  their  way  to 
the  right,  when  Johnson  attacked  it.  A  few  detachments 
of  Green's  brigade  alone  defended  the  intrcnchments,  and 


252  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Stewart's  brigade  had  no  difficulty  in  occupying  all  that 
part  south  of  the  ravine.  He  continued  to  advance  and 
drove  Green  before  him.  Night  came  on  and  he  halted, 
ignorant  that  the  Baltimore  turnpike  was  only  a  short  dis- 
tance away,  and  that  to  capture  it  would  endanger  the 
Union  line  of  retreat. 

Jones  was  not  so  successful  in  his  attack  on  Green's  left. 
He  found  it  ambushed  on  the  steep  slopes  of  Gulp's  Hill, 
and  lost  many  men  in  a  vain  attempt  to  dislodge  it.  A 
brigade  from  Schurz'  division  and  also  Kane's  brigade 
came  to  reinforce  Green,  and  Nichols  was  pushed  back. 
While  they  had  thus  gained  some  ground,  the  Confederates 
had  obtained  no  material  advantage. 

This  was  only  a  portion  of  Ewell's  attack.  When  he 
had  set  Johnson  in  motion  he  gave  the  order  of  attack  to 
Early  and  Rodes.  Early  was  quick  to  march,  while 
Rodes  hung  back  for  some  reason,  and  the  effect  of  a 
united  movement   was  thus  lost. 

Hoke's  and  Hays'  brigades  ascended  the  eastern  slope  of 
Cemetery  Hill  under  a  terrific  fire  of  artillery.  As  they 
approached  nearer  they  fell  under  the  volleys  of  Barlow's 
men ;  but  their  gallant  advance  was  not  stopped,  and 
they  drove  the  Unionists  from  the  first  line  back  to  the 
intrenchments  on  the  top  of  the  hill.  They  followed 
them  there,  and  penetrated  into  the  works.  Steinwehr 
and  Schurz,  who  were  guarding  the  opposite  slopes,  were 
obliged  to  about  face  and  assist  Barlow.  Although  the 
Unionists  were  greater  in  number,  the  Confederate  vet- 
erans were  a  match  for  them,  and  held  the  northern  side 
of  the  hill.  Rodes  failed  to  come  to  their  assistance, 
while  Hancock,  learning  of  the  situation,  sent  Carroll's 
brigade  to  aid  Howard.  It  arrived  at  an  opportune  mo- 
ment, recaptured  the  northern  side,  and  drove  back 
Hoke.     Early  fell  back  defeated. 

While  the  infantry  and  artillery  were  battling  as  thus 
described,  the  cavalry  was  also  busy.     Kilpatrick  tried  to 


BATTLE   OF  GETTYSBURG.  253 

head  off  Stuart,  and  had  a  brisk  encounter  with  Hamp- 
ton's brigade  at  Hunterstown.  He  then  moved  to  a 
point  on  the  extreme  left.  Gregg  stationed  himself  on 
the  right.  Johnson  in  his  advance  sent  a  detachment  to 
reconnoitre  Brinkerhoff's  ridge,  and  Gregg  met  them  and 
repulsed  them. 

When  night  ended  the  battle,  it  was  hard  to  say  on 
which  side  the  advantage  lay.  Lee  occupied  a  portion  of 
Gulp's  Hill ;  he  had  held  Cemetery  Hill  and  Little  Round 
Top  for  a  short  time  ;  he  had  routed  the  Unionists  in  the 
peach  orchard,  and  these  advantages  he  considered  suffi- 
cient to  warrant  him  in  continuing  the  battle  on  the  next 
day.     Only  seventeen  of  his  brigades  had  been  in  action. 

Although  Meade  had  repulsed  all  attacks,  his  situation 
was  still  alarming.  Forty-two  of  his  fifty-two  brigades 
had  been  engaged.  He  had  lost  over  20,000  men  in  the 
two  days'  fighting,  and  hundreds  of  men  were  straggling 
towards  Baltimore.  He  looked  forward  with  apprehen- 
sion to  the  next  day  of  battle,  and  made  every  prepara- 
tion for  retreat.  He  called  a  council  of  war,  and  it  was 
decided  to  remain  and  defend  the  position. 

The  night  was  passed  in  reforming  the  lines  and  pick- 
ing up  the  wounded.  The  12th  corps  marched  back 
from  the  right  to  its  old  position,  to  find  it  occupied  b}' 
Stewart.  Kane's  brigade  joined  them.  Shaler's  and 
Neill's  brigades  were  stationed  on  the  extreme  right  on  the 
east  side  of  Rock  Creek.  Lockvvood  reinforced  Williams. 
The  5th  corps  was  placed  on  the  left  on  the  steep 
slopes  of  Great  Round  Top,  and  the  disabled  3d  was 
held  in  reserve.  Caldwell's  division  was  again  stationed 
on  the  left  of  the  2d  corps.  Wadsworth  was  on  Gulp's 
Hill,  Robinson  on  Cemetery  Hill.  Stannard  occupied 
the  small  wood  where  Perry  had  been  driven  out. 

Lee  made  no  change  in  his  plan  of  battle.  He  intended 
to  resume  his  tactics  of  the  previous  day — a  double  attack 
on  both  wings. 


254  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Johnson  on  the  left  was  reinforced  by  Smith's  brigade. 
Rodes'  old  brigade  and  Daniels'  came  to  support  his  left. 
The  Power  and  McAllister  Hills  commanded  his  position 
in  the  wood,  and  Williams,  having  planted  his  artillery- 
there,  began  a  destructive  fire  on  the  morning  of  the  3d 
July,  and  demolished  Johnson's  weak  entrenchments. 
Williams  pushed  forward  his  infantry  to  the  attack,  and 
Johnson's  infantry,  without  waiting,  dashed  forward  to 
meet  them.  This  enabled  them  to  catch  sight  of  the 
turnpike  crowded  with  wagons,  and  stragglers,  and  the 
sight  spurred  them  to  great  exertions. 

A  savage  hand-to-hand  fight  followed  among  the  rocks. 
Meade's  artillery  poured  in  a  terrible  fire  on  the  Confed- 
erates, who  had  no  guns  with  which  to  reply.  Lockwood 
moved  to  Geary's  assistance.  After  seven  hours'  fighting 
Stewart  led  a  charge  on  Ruger,  who  threatened  his  left. 
It  was  all  in  vain,  and  in  turn  Geary  and  Ruger  advanced, 
drove  Stewart  from  the  slopes  of  Gulp's  Hill,  and  captured 
three  stand  of  colors  and  five  hundred  prisoners. 

It  was  eleven  o'clock.  The  Unionists  were  completely 
victorious  on  their  right  wing  and  the  turnpike  was  safe. 
On  the  extreme  left  Farnsworth  made  a  gallant  charge  on 
Laws'  lines,  and  was  met  and  annihilated  by  Robertson's 
brigade. 

It  was  just  about  this  time  that  Pickett,  who  was  sta- 
tioned on  the  strip  of  ground  between  Warfield  Ridge 
and  Seminary  Hill,  set  fire  to  the  Codon  House,  and  ex- 
changed shots  with  the  enemy.  This  amounted  to  little, 
and  it  was  not  until  one  o'clock  that  the  battle  really 
began. 

Two  cannon-shots  gave  the  signal,  and  a  moment  later 
one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  Confederate  guns  opened  a 
concentrated  fire  on  Cemetery  Hill.  Eighty  Union  guns, 
posted  on  Cemetery  Hill  and  Cemetery  Ridge  replied.  It 
was  the  greatest  artillery  duel  of  the  whole  war.  It  cre- 
ated immense  havoc  in  the  Union  lines,  but   they  main- 


SCAIH     OF"  MILES 
GETTYSBURG 
THE  POSITIONS  ON  THE  THUU>  OF  JULY 


Uf^/Off 


OOhlFKDERATE 


255 


256  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

tained  their  positions  bravely.  Finally  Meade  silenced 
his  guns  in  order  to  draw  the  enemy  to  the  attack.  Pick- 
ett believing  the  guns  to  be  disabled,  threw  his  soldiers 
forward  on  Ziegler's  grove.  Kemper  moved  on  his  right 
and  Armistead  on  his  left. 

McGilvery  reopened  with  his  battery  of  forty  pieces, 
and  taking  Pickett's  line  in  flank  did  tremendous  damage. 
This  did  not  stop  the  intrepid  Southerners,  and  Pickett's 
three  brigades  advanced  on  the  run,  making  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  charges  in  the  history  of  war.  Garnett, 
who  led  his  brigade,  fell  dead  wnth  many  of  his  men,  be- 
fore the  withering  fire  of  Gibbon's  division. 

The  Unionists  were  intrenched  behind  rocks  and  fences, 
where  bullets  could  not  reach  them.  Still  Pickett  pressed 
on,  and  crossed  bayonets  with  Gibbon's  men.  Stannard's 
soldiers  opened  a  murderous  fire  on  Armistead's  right.  It 
recoiled,  and  Armistead  threw  it  upon  the  brigades  of 
Webb  and  Harrow.  It  pierced  the  first  line  and  drove 
the  Unionists  back  upon  their  second  line  of  earthworks. 
Hancock  and  Gibbon  sent  forward  their  reserves.  Har- 
row advanced  his  left  and  took  Pickett  in  the  rear. 

Armistead  pressed  on,  and  captured  Cushing's  battery, 
which  was  posted  in  a  clump  of  trees,  and  was  killed  with 
Gushing  in  the  fight.  Pettigrew,  Archer,  Scales,  and 
Lane,  who  had  advanced  on  Pickett's  left,  broke  through 
the  first  Union  line,  and  ascending  the  slopes,  threw  them- 
selves against  Hays'  line.  They  could  not  pierce  it  and 
were  driven  back  in  confusion,  leaving  two  thousand 
prisoners  and  fifteen  stand  of  colors.  Some  of  their 
regiments  joined  Pickett,  who  was  still  fighting. 

The  entire  fire  of  the  Unionists  was  now  concentrated 
on  Pickett's  men,  and  the  division  was  simply  annihilated  ; 
three  thousand  five  hundred  men  and  twelve  stand  of 
colors  were  lost. 

Wilcox,  who  should  have  assaulted  Gibbon's  right,  had 
wandered  off  too  far  to  the  right,  anc!  had   reached  the 


BATTLE    OF  GETTYSBURG.  I'^J 

foot  of  the  slope  on  which  the  3d  corps  (Union)  was 
stationed.  He  was  preparing  to  resume  his  march  when 
Stannard  attacked  him  on  the  flank  and  the  Union  artil- 
lery opened  fire.  Finding  himself  unsupported  he  re- 
treated. 

The  whole  Confederate  line  was  now  in  retreat.  The 
reserve  was  not  near  enough  to  support  it,  and  the  artil- 
lery alone  aided  it.  It  drew  off  slowly,  and  Meade  was 
too  cautious  to  take  the  offensive.  McCandless  advanced 
on  Kershaw,  had  a  brief  engagement,  and  captured  a  few 
prisoners.     The  battle  of  Gettysburg  was  ended. 

Before  the  day's  battle  had  begun  Stuart  had  received 
orders  to  move  round  the  Union  right  and  strike  the 
Union  column  on  the  Baltimore  turnpike  if  it  should  re- 
treat in  that  direction.  He  wished  to  create  a  panic  in  the 
Union  rear,  and  he  gathered  his  four  brigades  commanded 
by  Chamblin,  Jenkens,  Fitzhugh  Lee,  and  Hampton,  on 
the  western  slopes  of  Cress  Ridge. 

Kilpatrick's  division  was  on  the  other  side  of  the  ridge, 
and  prepared  to  oppose  him.  A  vigorous  engagement 
took  place  on  the  Rummel  farm  east  of  the  ridge.  The 
opposing  cavalry  crossed  sabres  several  times ;  the  battle 
ended  in  Stuart  being  defeated,  and  he  withdrew  to  cover 
the  retreat  of  Lee's  army. 

The  battle  had  thus  occupied  July  1st,  2d,  and  3d. 
Meade's  effective  force  was  from  82,000  to  84,000  men, 
and  300  guns.  Lee's  effective  force  was  about  69,000 
men,  and  250  guns.  Each  side  lost  23,000  men,  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing.  Considering  the  number  of  men 
engaged,  about  69,000  Confederates,  to  80,000  on  the 
Union  side,  the  percentage  is  enormous  ;  being  36  per 
cent,  for  the  former,  and  27  for  the  latter.  The  official 
report  gave  the  Union  loss  2,834  killed,  13,709  wounded, 
and  6,645  prisoners,  or  23,188  in  all.  The  Confederate 
total  was  23,028,  and  included  2,665  killed  and  12,599 
wounded.     Fully  one  thousand  of  those  reported  wounded 


258  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

on  the  Union  side  died  soon  after,  and  the  same  was  the 
case  with  the  Confederates.  The  Union  army  lost  20 
generals,  16  wounded,  and  four  killed.  The  Confederates 
lost  17  generals,  13  wounded,  three  killed,  and  one  cap- 
tured. 

After  its  defeat  at  Gettysburg,  the  Confederate  army 
retreated  to  Northern  Virginia,  closely  followed  by  the 
Union  forces.  During  the  remainder  of  1863  there  were 
no  important  movements  on  either  side. 

A  contrary  result  to  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  would 
have  been  fraught  with  disaster  to  the  Union  cause,  far 
beyond  the  loss  of  men  and  material  during  the  clash  of 
arms.  It  would  have  uncovered  Baltimore  and  Philadel- 
phia to  the  advance  of  the  Confederate  army,  and  enabled 
Lee  to  establish  himself  in  the  rich  region  of  Eastern 
Pennsylvania,  whence  he  could  gather  abundant  supplies 
for  his  army,  while  it  rested  from  the  fatigue  of  the  long 
march,  and  repaired  the  ravages  of  battle.  Washington 
would  have  been  endangered,  and  it  was  Lee's  plan  to 
give  a  crushing  defeat  to  the  Union  army,  and  then  oc- 
cupy the  capital  and  dictate  terms  of  peace.  He  was  well 
aware  of  the  discontent  that  prevailed  at  the  North,  and 
the  opposition  that  politicians  and  others  were  making  to 
the  prosecution  of  the  war  for  the  suppression  of  the 
rebellion  He  counted  confidently  upon  an  uprising  in 
the  North,  in  case  he  could  carry  the  war  into  its  territory  in- 
stead of  confining  it,  as  it  had  been  thus  far  and  was  ever 
after  confined,  to  the  Southern  States,  Between  the 
opposition  influences  and  the  fears  of  the  people,  he  hoped 
to  create  a  sentiment  in  favor  of  peace,  and  with  his  ad- 
vantage of  position  he  believed  he  would  be  able,  in  a 
great  measure,  to  dictate  its  terms. 

His  confidence  cannot  be  wondered  at  when  it  is  re- 
membered that  he  had,  not  long  before,  defeated  the 
Union  army  of  Virginia,  at  Chancellorsville,  and,  previous 
to  Chancellorsville,  had   inflicted   other  defeats  of  equal 


BATTLE   r^F  GETTYSBURG. 


259 


iraportance.  His  army  was  composed  of  the  very  flower 
of  the  Southern  troops,  and  in  order  to  strengthen  it  and 
prepare  for  the  invasion  of  Pennsylvania,  he  had  drawn 
Longstreet's  corps  from  North  CaroHna,  when  it  was 
greatly  needed  for  strengthening  Bragg,  and  enabling  him 
to  take  the  offensive  against  Rosecrans,  and  also  for  pre- 
venting the  disaster  which  overtook  the  Confederates  at 
Vicksburg.  By  their  defeat  at  Gettysburg,  the  Confed- 
erates suffered  as  heavily  in  morale  as  in  material,  and  from 
that  time  onward,  to  the  close  of  the  war,  the  invasion  of 
the  North  was  not  again  possible.  In  all  its  aspects  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg  is  entitled  to  rank  as  one  of  the 
great  and  decisive  battles  in  the  history  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

SIEGE   AND    FALL    OF   VICKSBURG — 1 863. 

At  the  very  outset  of  the  civil  war  in  America  the  im- 
portance of  the  possession  of  the  Mississippi  River  was 
perceived  by  the  leaders  on  both  sides  of  the  conflict.  The 
Confederates  sought  to  close  the  great  water  highway  by 
the  erection  of  powerful  batteries  at  Columbus,  Kentucky, 
twenty  miles  below  the  junction  of  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi at  Cairo,  and  at  the  same  time  they  obstructed  its 
mouth  by  seizing  the  forts  below  New  Orleans.  Immedi- 
ately there  arose  throughout  all  the  region  drained  by  the 
mighty  stream  and  its  numerous  tributaries  a  demand 
that  this  great  artery  of  commerce  should  be  opened. 
Never  were  a  people  moved  by  a  stronger  and  more  united 
impulse  than  were  the  dwellers  in  the  great  valley  that  the 
Father  of  Waters,  should  be  restored  to  peaceful  naviga- 
tion. No  more  stirring  prophecy  was  ever  made  than  that 
of  General  Logan  when  he  declared  that  "  the  men  of  the 
West  will  hew  their  way  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  with  their 
swords." 

The  earliest  military  movements  of  any  magnitude  in 
the  Western  States  were  undertaken  with  a  view  to  open- 
ing the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi.  While  General 
Lyon  was  making  efforts  for  retaining  possession  of  Mis- 
souri on  behalf  of  the  nation,  a  military  force  was  gathered 
at  Cairo  under  command  of  General  Prentiss,  to  protect 
that  important  point  and  prevent  as  far  as  possible  the 
further  descent  of  boats   laden  with  supplies.       Many  of 

260 


SIEGE   AND   FALL    OF  VICKSBUKG,  26 1 

the  merchants  and  steamboat  owners  of  St.  Louis  were  in 
sympathy  with  the  secession  movement,  and  in  the  early 
days  of  the  blockade  at  Cairo  numerous  boats  succeeded  in 
passing  safely  down  the  stream,  never  to  return.  Gun- 
boats were  hastily  improvised  and  added  to  the  efficiency 
of  the  blockade,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1861  General  Grant, 
who  had  been  placed  in  command  at  Cairo,  led  an  expedi- 
tion for  the  capture  of  Belmont,  a  small  town  opposite 
Columbus.  The  Confederate  camp  at  that  point  was  cap- 
tured and  destroyed,  but  the  Union  forces  were  compelled 
to  retreat  owing  to  the  fire  of  the  heavy  guns  from  the 
heights  of  Columbus,  and  the  overwhelming  number  of 
troops  that  were  sent  across  the  river  to  reinforce  the  fee- 
ble garrison  of  Belmont.  The  losses  on  the  Union  side 
were  about  four  hundred  in  killed,  wounded,  and  captured, 
and  about  six  hundred  on  that  of  the  Confederates.  The 
battle  had  no  strategic  importance,  but  it  ranks  in  history 
as  the  first  aggressive  movement  for  the  opening  of  the 
Mississippi. 

The  Confederate  position  at  Columbus  was  on  a  high 
bluff  commanding  the  river,  and  the  batteries  were  so 
powerful  and  so  well  planted  that  their  reduction  by  the 
gun-boats  of  the  river  was  not  a  possibility.  In  the  early 
part  of  1862  the  army  and  fleet  were  ready  to  move,  but 
instead  of  making  a  direct  attack  as  the  Confederates  had 
expected.  General  Grant  proceeded  to  a  flank  movement 
up  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee  rivers.  Forts  Henry 
and  Donelson  fell,  and  Columbus,  no  longer  tenable,  as  it 
could  be  easily  assailed  from  the  rear,  was  evacuated  by 
the  Confederates,  who  took  a  new  position  at  Island 
Number  Ten,  25  miles  farther  down  the  river.  The  gun- 
boats and  a  strong  land  force  assailed  the  batteries  on  this 
island,  but  were  unable  to  capture  it.  It  held  out  for 
nearly  a  month,  and  in  the  meantime  the  Confederates 
were  assembling  an  arm}'  at  Corinth,  Mississippi,  with  a 
view  to  demolishing  the  forces  of  General  Grant,  who  had 


262  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

moved  up  the  Tennessee  River  after  the  capture  of  Fort 
Donelson,  and  taken  position  at  Pittsburg  Landing.  The 
Confederate  army  attacked  General  Grant  on  the  6th 
April,  and  the  battle  of  Shiloh  ensued.  General  Grant's 
army  was  saved  by  the  opportune  arrival  of  a  portion  of 
General  Buell's  army  which  had  been  marching  to  join  it, 
and  the  Confederates  retreated  to  Corinth.  Their  defeat 
rendered  Island  Number  Ten  untenable,  and  it  was  evacu- 
ated on  the  7th  ;  part  of  the  garrison  retiring  to  Fort 
Pillow,  130  miles  farther  down  the  river,  and  apart  falling 
into  the  hands  of  General  Pope  as  prisoners  of  war. 

Fort  Pillow  was  bombarded  by  the  gun-boats  for  several 
weeks,  but  it  could  not  be  attacked  from  the  land  side  as 
long  as  the  Confederates  held  possession  of  Corinth.  At 
the  end  of  May  they  evacuated  Corinth,  and  the  evacua- 
tion of  Fort  Pillow  followed  immediatel}-.  The  Union 
fleet  then  steamed  down  the  river,  70  miles  to  Memphis, 
where  a  Confederate  fleet  of  seven  gun-boats  waited  to  de- 
fend the  city.  After  a  sharp  battle,  which  was  witnessed 
by  the  population  of  Memphis  from  the  bluff  on  which 
that  city  stands,  the  Confederate  boats  were  captured  or 
destroyed,  and  the  Union  forces  were  in  possession  of  the 
place. 

Shortly  after  the  capture  of  Memphis  the  Union  flotilla 
descended  the  river  to  Vicksburg,  finding  no  obstructions 
other  than  occasional  light  batteries  which  fired  upon  the 
gun-boats  from  the  banks.  While  the  army  and  flotilla 
had  been  making  its  way  southward  a  national  fleet,  com- 
manded by  the  intrepid  Farragut,  had  passed  the  forts 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  emerged  victorious 
from  one  of  the  greatest  naval  battles  of  the  war,  and  com- 
pelled the  surrender  of  New  Orleans.  A  land  force  under 
General  Butler  arrived  and  took  possession  of  the  city, 
and  soon  afterwards  Admiral  Farragut  sent  a  portion  of 
his  fleet  under  Commander  Lee  to  ascertain  what  obstruc- 
tions there  might  be  to  the  navigation  of  the  sreat  river 


SIEGE   AND   FALL    OF  VICKSBURG.  263 

farther  up.  Commander  Lee  reached  Vicksburg  on  the 
1 8th  May  and  judged  that  he  could  not  successfully  cope 
with  the  batteries.  He  reported  thus  to  Admiral  Farra- 
gut,  and  waited  for  reinforcements,  which  arrived  during 
the  latter  part  of  May.  Early  in  June  a  bombardment 
was  begun,  but  without  serious  effect ;  during  June  the  fleet 
was  strengthened,  and  by  the  end  of  the  month  Admiral 
Farragut  arrived  with  his  entire  squadron,  and  accompa- 
nied by  an  infantry  force  of  four  regiments  under  General 
Williams. 

The  gun-boat  flotilla  from  above  and  the  naval  fleet 
from  below  met  in  front  of  Vicksburg,  which  was  now  the 
only  point  firmly  held  by  the  Confederates  along  the 
whole  course  of  the  Mississippi.  On  the  27th  and  28th 
June  the  lower  fleet  bombarded  the  defences  for  several 
hours,  and  seven  of  the  vessels  passed  the  batteries  and 
joined  the  fleet  above.  The  bombardment  had  very  little 
effect  on  the  defences  of  Vicksburg ;  shot  and  shell  were 
occasionally  thrown  into  the  town  until  the  15th  July, 
when  the  Confederate  ram  Arkansas,  which  had  been  con- 
structed at  Yazoo  City,  came  out  of  the  Yazoo  River,  and 
after  disabling  two  of  the  Union  gun-boats,  was  safely 
moored  under  the  Confederate  batteries  at  Vicksburg. 

Fearing  that  this  vessel  might  destroy  his  mortar  boats 
anchored  below  the  city,  Farragut  again  descended  the 
river,  passing  the  forts  in  the  night,  and  towards  the  end 
of  the  month  retired  altogether  from  the  vicinity.  The 
land  force  had  been  endeavoring  to  dig  a  canal  across  the 
tongue  of  land  known  as  Young's  Point,  directly  opposite 
Vicksburg.  The  canal  was  a  failure,  as  water  could  not 
be  made  to  run  through  it,  and  the  land  force  retired  at 
the  same  time  as  the  lower  fleet.  The  upper  gun-boats 
also  went  away,  and  before  the  first  of  August  there  was 
no  enemy  in  sight  of  Vicksburg.  This  first  siege  lasted 
altogether  more  than  two  months,  and  though  25,000  shot 
and  shell  were  thrown  into   the  place   from  the   Union 


264  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

guns,  the  loss  or  damage  to  the  Confederates  was  trifling ; 
they  reported  altogether  7  killed  and  15  wounded. 

During  the  latter  half  of  1862  no  material  advance  tow- 
ards the  opening  of  the  Mississippi  was  made.  The 
Confederates  resumed  the  offensive,  sending  the  larger 
part  of  the  army  that  withdrew  from  Shiloh  to  reinforce 
the  army  that  was  defending  Chattanooga.  The  Army 
of  the  Ohio,  under  General  Buell,  was  forced  back  through 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky  ;  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee, 
under  General  Grant,  advanced  along  the  line  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Central  Railway  and  was  making  good  progress 
towards  a  position  on  the  line  in  the  rear  of  Vicksburg. 
General  Pemberton  commanded  the  Confederate  forces 
opposed  to  General  Grant ;  he  held  the  line  of  the  Tal- 
lahatchie River,  and  in  order  to  drive  him  from  it  General 
Grant  sent  a  cavalry  force  under  Generals  Washburne  and 
Hovey  to  cut  the  line  of  railway  and  menace  Pemberton's 
communications.  This  movement  caused  him  to  abandon 
the  line  of  the  Tallahatchie  and  fall  back  to_ Grenada,  and 
as  soon  as  he  had  done  so  the  Union  line  was  advanced 
through  Holly  Springs  to  Oxford,  where  head-quarters 
were  established  on  the  3d  December. 

Grant  proceeded  to  accumulate  large  quantities  of 
stores  and  munitions  of  war  at  Holly  Springs  preparatory 
to  another  advance.  Realizing  the  danger  of  a  long  line 
of  railway  through  an  enemy's  country,  he  decided  to 
make  an  attempt  to  establish  a  position  in  the  rear  of 
Vicksburg,  which  would  enable  him  to  cut  loose  from  his 
line  of  railway  and  advance,  en  rair,  until  he  could  con- 
nect with  the  new  base  and  thus  have  a  secure  position 
from  which  to  prosecute  the  siege  of  Vicksburg.  To 
establish  this  base  he  ordered  the  corps  which  formed  his 
right  wing  to  be  embarked  on  transports  and  convoyed  by 
the  gun-boat  fleet  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo  River  a 
few  miles  above  Vicksburg.  Ascending  the  river  some 
ten  or  twelve  miles,  it  was  to  land  and  occupy  Haines' 
Bluff,  a  commanding  position  in  the  rear  of  the  city. 


^caic  cfjkliies 
vrCKSBURG 


CAMPAIGN  MAP 


265 


266  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

The  fleet  of  gun-boats  and  transports  started  from  Mem- 
phis on  the  20th  December,  and  on  the  26th  the  troops 
debarked  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Yazoo  River  near  the 
mouth  of  Chickasaw  Bayou.  The  whole  day  was  con- 
sumed in  landing,  and  on  the  27th  the  Confederate  lines 
were  attacked.  That  day  and  the  next  passed  in  skirm- 
ishes and  small  encounters  of  no  great  consequence.  But 
on  the  29th  an  assault  was  made  on  the  Confederate 
works,  in  which  there  was  heavy  loss  of  life  with  no  ad- 
vantage to  the  Union  side.  The  charge  up  the  hillsides 
seamed  with  rifle  pits,  covered  with  abatis,  and  raked  by 
artillery  and  small  arms,  was  most  heroic  ;  it  was  per- 
formed by  the  division  of  General  Morgan,  reinforced  by 
the  brigades  of  Generals  Blair  and  Thayer  from  Steele's 
division.  General  Thayer's  brigade  reached  the  edge  of 
the  Confederate  entrenchments  side  by  side  with  that  of 
General  Blair,  but  the  fire  was  so  furious  that  it  could  not 
be  met,  and  the  storming  party  was  driven  back,  leaving 
the  ground  strewn  with  dead  and  wounded.  The  Union 
loss  in  the  attack  on  Haines'  Bluff  was  1,929  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing ;  that  of  the  Confederates  was  209. 

The  failure  of  the  movement  was  due  partly  to  the 
delay  in  making  the  assault,  and  partly  to  the  fact  that  on 
the  very  day  the  expedition  left  Memphis  General  Grant's 
line  of  communication  was  cut  by  the  Confederate  cav- 
alry under  General  Van  Dorn.  That  energetic  ofificer 
had  been  sent  by  Pemberton  to  attack  Holly  Springs, 
which  was  insufificiently  defended,  having  a  garrison  of 
only  1,200  men  under  a  commander  who  was  soon  after- 
wards dismissed  for  incompetence.  Van  Dorn  seized  the 
place  and  remained  there  several  hours  engaged  in  de- 
stroying the  immense  stores  which  had  been  accumulated. 
Then  he  rode  away  without  molestation,  having  upset  all 
of  General  Grant's  plans.  Grant  was  compelled  to  retire 
to  Holly  Springs,  and  his  retirement  gave  opportunity 
for  Pemberton   to  send  reinforcements   to  Vicksburg  and 


SIEGE  AND  FALL    OF  VICKSBURG.  267 

enable  the  commander  there  to  cope  successfully  with  the 
Union  forces  that  attacked  the  forts  at  Haines'  Bluff. 

On  the  2d  January  the  troops  at  Chickasaw  Bayou  were 
re-embarked.  They  left  the  Yazoo  and  ascended  the 
Mississippi  to  Milliken's  Bend,  about  12  miles  above 
Vicksburg,  and  there  on  the  4th  January,  General 
]\rClernand  assumed  command.  To  restore  in  as  great 
measure  as  possible  the  morale  of  the  troops  disheartened 
by  the  failure  at  Haines'  Bluff,  General  M'Clernand  order- 
ed an  attack  upon  Fort  Hindman  at  Arkansas  Post,  on 
the  Arkansas  River,  a  short  distance  from  its  mouth.  This 
fort  commanded  the  navigation  of  the  Arkansas  River  and 
was  a  convenient  striking  point  from  which  to  interfere 
with  the  safe  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  by  the  Union 
boats.  Two  transports  had  been  captured  by  sallies  of  the 
Confederates  from  Fort  Hindman  ;  its  garrison  was  known 
to  be  small  and  the  capture  would  not  be  a  difificult  matter 
for  the  forces  under  General  M'Clernand. 

Fort  Hindman  was  a  regular,  square  bastioned  work, 
300  feet  on  each  exterior  side,  with  a  parapet  18  feet  high 
and  a  ditch  15  feet  deep.  It  mounted  12  guns,  two  of 
them  8-inch  and  one  9-inch.  The  garrison  comprised 
about  6,000  troops  under  command  of  Brigadier-General 
Churchill. 

During  the  evening  of  the  loth  January,  the  gun-boats 
bombarded  the  fort  for  about  half  an  hour,  from  a  distance 
of  400  yards.  On  the  ilth,  a  combined  attack  of  the 
army  and  navy  was  made,  the  arm}'  having  been  landed 
during  the  night  and  taken  a  position  in  the  rear  of  the 
fort.  The  battle  lasted  for  four  hours  ;  attack  and  defence 
were  ably  conducted,  and  when  further  resistance  was 
useless,  the  Confederates  displayed  the  white  flag  and  the 
works  were  occupied  by  the  Union  forces.  Seven  thousand 
prisoners,  8,000  stand  of  arms,  20  pieces  of  artiller}',  and  a 
large  amount  of  ammunition  and  commissary  stores  were 
taken.      The   Union   loss  was    120  killed  and  about  480 


268  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

wounded;  the  Confederate  loss  in  killed  and  wounded  was 
much  less,  owing  to  the  shelter  which  the  fort  afforded. 
Expeditions  were  sent  to  capture  Des  Arc  and  Duval's 
BlufT,  where  there  were  small  military  posts ;  the  main 
body  of  M'Clernand's  command  returned  down  the  river 
to  Napoleon,  Arkansas,  and  a  few  days  later  received 
orders  from  General  Grant  to  proceed  to  Young's  Point, 
just  below  Milliken's  Bend. 

Soon  after  the  raid  of  Van  Dorn  upon  Holly  Springs, 
General  Grant  determined  to  abandon  the  line  of  advance 
by  way  of  Grenada  and  Jackson,  and  to  assault  Vicksburg 
with  the  river  as  his  base.  Leaving  sufificient  forces  to 
hold  important  points  in  Tennessee  and  Mississippi,  he 
transferred  his  army  to  Memphis  by  rail,  and  sent  it  thence 
in  steamboats  to  Milliken's  Bend  and  Young's  Point.  The 
transfer  occupied  the  greater  part  of  January,  and  on  the 
2d  February  the  General  arrived  in  person  at  Milliken's 
Bend  and  assumed  command.  The  attack  upon  the  works 
at  Haines'  Bluff  had  demonstrated  the  impossibility  of 
taking  Vicksburg  from  that  direction,  and  the  General 
proceeded  to  make  plans  for  transferring  the  army  below 
the  city. 

Operations  were  resumed  in  the  canal  which  General 
Williams  attempted  to  dig  in  the  previous  year,  but  they 
were  hindered  by  the  rapid  rise  of  the  river  and  the  inces- 
sant rains.  The  earth  taken  from  the  canal  was  piled  on 
its  western  side  to  prevent  the  flooding  of  that  part  of  the 
country  when  the  water  was  let  in,  as  it  is  below  the  level 
of  the  Mississippi  at  a  high  stage.  An  embankment  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  canal  was  intended  to  keep  out  the 
water  until  the  work  was  completed. 

On  the  night  of  the  8th  March,  this  embankment  gave 
way  and  the  river  poured  a  torrent  into  the  canal,  carrying 
away  the  digging  implements,  and  flooding  the  camps  of 
the  troops  that  were  located  near  by.  Several  regiments 
were  obliged  to  gather  their  camp  equipage  and  make  a 


SIEGE   AND   FALL    OF  VICKSBUKG.  269 

rapid  run  for  the  levee,  and  some  of  the  troops  that  were 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  peninsula  had  to  be  ferried  over 
to  join  the  main  body  of  the  army.  Attempts  were  made 
to  repair  the  damages,  but  the  water  was  so  high  that  they 
were  ineffectual,  and  it  was  evident  that  the  canal  could 
not  be  utilized  for  its  intended  purpose. 

While  the  work  on  the  canal  was  progressing,  General 
Grant  ordered  a  channel  to  be  cut  from  the  Mississippi 
into  Lake  Providence,  on  the  west  side  of  the  river,  in  the 
hope  of  opening  a  route  by  which  he  might  send  trans- 
ports and  gun-boats  to  co-operate  with  General  Banks 
farther  down.  He  also  sent  an  expedition  to  the  Cold- 
water  River,  by  way  of  Yazoo  Pass,  in  the  hope  of  getting 
into  the  Yazoo  River  and  destroying  some  transports  and 
partially  completed  gun-boats  at  Yazoo  City.  The  Con- 
federates had  established  a  navy-yard  at  that  point,  and  it 
was  from  there  that  the  ram  Arkansas  descended  in  1862 
and  created  the  havoc  and  alarm  already  described. 

Neither  of  these  and  two  or  three  similar  enterprises 
amounted  to  any  thing  further  than  to  furnish  occupation 
for  idle  troops  and  keep  the  Confederates  in  considerable 
alarm  for  their  communications,  and  doubts  as  to  the  in- 
tentions of  the  Union  commander.  The  Confederates 
had  a  steamboat,  the  City  of  Vicksburg,  lying  at  the  levee 
in  front  of  the  town,  and  the  Union  commander  desired 
to  destroy  her.  Colonel  Ellet,  commanding  the  ram, 
Queen  of  the  West,  volunteered  to  undertake  the  danger- 
ous task,  and  at  the  same  time  run  below  Vicksburg  and 
destroy  other  boats  which  the  enemy  were  using  for  the 
transport  of  troops  and  supplies  across  the  river.  To  pro- 
tect her  as  much  as  possible  three  hundred  bales  of  cotton 
were  placed  in  such  a  position  as  to  partially  shield  her 
engines,  and  her  steering  wheel  was  removed  from  the 
usual  position  and  placed  under  shelter.  But  it  was  found 
that  with  this  arrangement  she  steered  so  badly  that  the 
wheel  was  put  back  in  its  old  place  ;  the  necessity  of  the 


270  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

change  delayed  her  starting,  and  instead  of  getting  off  at 
daybreak,  as  first  intended,  it  was  full  sunrise  before  she 
was  in  front  of  Vicksburg.  A  hundred  guns  opened  fire 
upon  her  as  soon  as  she  came  in  range,  but  only  a  few 
shots  struck  her. 

She  delivered  a  blow  with  her  iron  prow  upon  the  side 
of  the  City  of  Vicksburg,  but'  owing  to  the  broad  guards 
of  the  latter,  the  force  of  the  impact  was  broken  and  the 
hull  was  not  injured.  Circumstances  did  not  permit  de- 
lay for  a  second  blow,  and  the  Queen  of  the  TFr.?/ continued 
her  journey  down  the  stream  after  discharging  some  in- 
cendiary shells  into  the  enemy's  boat.  The  cotton  on  the 
Queen  was  fired  by  the  enemy's  shells,  but  all  hands  were 
set  to  work  to  extinguish  the  flames  and  no  serious  dam- 
age occurred.  The  steamer  was  soon  out  of  range  and 
tied  up  to  the  shore  on  the  southerly  side  of  Young's 
Point,  where  her  commander  was  warmly  greeted  by  the 
officers  of  the  troops  stationed  there. 

The  boat  was  struck  about  a  dozen  times,  but  all  dam- 
ages were  repaired  in  a  few  hours.  She  then  steamed 
down  the  river.  She  burned  several  Confederate  trans- 
ports, returned  for  a  supply  of  coal,  and  then  started  up 
the  Red  River  on  an  expedition  in  which  she  captured 
one  steamer,  but  was  herself  captured,  having  been  run 
ashore  under  the  guns  of  a  fort  through  the  treachery  of 
her  pilot.  Part  of  the  crew  was  taken  with  the  boat,  but 
the  remainder,  including  Colonel  Ellet,  escaped  to  the 
steamer  De  Soto,  a  tender  of  the  Queen.  On  the  latter 
steamer  the  party  descended  the  Red  River  to  where  the 
Era,  one  of  the  captured  boats,  was  lying.  The  De  Soto 
unshipped  her  rudder  and  could  not  be  steered  ;  she  was 
blown  up  to  prevent  her  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy,  and  the  Era  made  good  her  escape  and  ascended 
the  river  to  the  position  of  the  army  near  Vicksburg. 

Soon  after  the  descent  of  the  Qjieenof  the  West  in  front 
of  Vicksburg  the   gunboat   Indianola  followed   her ;  she 


SIEGE   AND   FALL    OF  VICKSBURG.  2/1 

drifted  past  the  batteries  with  the  force  of  the  current 
and  was  not  discovered  until  in  front  of  the  town.  The 
batteries  opened  upon  her,  but  she  escaped  unharmed,  and 
the  success  of  the  movement  prompted  General  Grant  to 
make  further  attempts  in  the  same  direction.  The  Indi- 
anola  was  captured  in  a  fight  with  the  Confederate  gun- 
boat Webb  and  the  Queen  of  the  West,  which  had  been 
repaired  and  placed  in  the  service  of  her  captors.  Soon 
afterwards  a  coal-barge  was  disguised  to  resemble  a  gun- 
boat and  allowed  to  drift  past  the  batteries  of  Vicksburg 
in  the  night.  Her  pilot  house  was  a  small  shed  taken 
from  a  plantation,  and  her  smoke-stacks  were  made  of 
barrels  piled  endwise  on  top  of  one  another,  the  topmost 
one  containing  a  kettle  of  burning  tar. 

A  tremendous  fire  was  opened  from  the  batteries,  but 
the  coal-barge,  with  not  a  soul  on  board,  drifted  along  as 
though  nothing  had  happened,  and  passed  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  guns.  The  Indianola  was  being  repaired  a 
few  miles  below,  and  fearing  the  supposed  gun-boat  would 
recapture  her,  the  Confederates  sent  a  courier  with  orders 
that  she  should  be  set  on  fire.  By  the  time  the  ruse  was 
discovered  and  an  order  countermanding  the  burning 
could  be  sent,  the  Indianola  had  been  destroyed.  She 
burned  and  blew  up  and  not  even  a  gun  was  saved  from 
her. 

Preparations  were  now  made  by  General  Grant  for 
transferring  his  army  to  a  point  on  the  Mississippi  below 
Vicksburg,  and  for  this  purpose  General  McClernand,  on 
the  29th  of  March,  moved  with  the  13th  corps  to  New 
Carthage,  distant  by  land  from  Milliken's  Bend  about 
thirty-five  miles.  The  movement  was  slow,  as  the  roads 
were  bad  ;  the  i6th  corps  followed,  accompanied  by  long 
trains  of  wagons  transporting  supplies  and  ammunition. 
While  the  movement  was  going  on  preparations  were 
made  for  running  several  gun-boats  and  a  fleet  of  trans- 
ports past  the  batteries  of  Vicksburg.     Eight  gun-boats 


2/2  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

and  three  transports  were  assigned  for  the  effort ;  the 
plan  was  for  the  gun-boats  to  drift  down  at  about  a  hun- 
dred yards  from  each  other  and  engage  the  batteries  as 
soon  as  they  were  discovered,  but  not  before.  The  night 
of  the  1 6th  of  April  was  selected  for  the  undertaking. 
Under  cover  of  the  smoke  of  the  cannonade  the  trans- 
ports were  to  endeavor  to  slip  through  with  a  full  head  of 
steam. 

The  gun-boats  were  fairly  in  front  of  the  city  before 
there  was  any  sign  of  life  on  shore.  Suddenly  two  guns 
were  fired  from  the  extreme  right  of  the  Vicksburg  bat- 
teries, and  then  the  cannonade  commenced  along  the 
whole  line  of  the  works.  The  fleet  immediately  replied, 
and  a  great  cloud  of  smoke  soon  hid  the  boats  from  view. 
Then  the  transports  started  at  full  speed,  in  the  cover  of  the 
smoke  ;  the  Forest  Queen,  the  foremost  transport,  was  dis- 
abled by  a  shot  through  her  steam  drum,  and  the  Henry 
Clay,  which  followed,  was  set  on  fire  by  a  shell.  The 
Forest  Queen  drifted  out  of  range,  and  was  picked  up  by 
a  gun-boat  ;  the  crew  of  the  Henry  Clay  escaped  in  their 
yawl,  all  except  the  pilot,  who  remained  at  his  post  till 
the  flames  were  around  him,  and  finding  that  his  signals 
to  the  engineer  were  not  answered,  he  jumped  overboard 
and  was  saved  by  one  of  the  gun-boats.  The  Henry  Clay 
was  burned,  and  drifted  down  the  river  a  mass  of  flames. 
The  Silver  Wave,  the  third  transport,  was  not  touched  by 
the  Confederate  shot  and  shell. 

The  success  of  this  enterprise  encouraged  a  similar  one, 
and  on  the  night  of  the  22d  of  April,  six  transports  were 
sent  down  with  barges  of  forage  fastened  to  their  sides  to 
protect  them  from  artillery  fire.  Five  of  them  got 
through  somewhat  damaged,  and  fully  half  the  forage  on 
the  barges  was  saved.  The  damaged  transports  were  re- 
paired, and  supplied  the  desired  facilities  for  moving  the 
army  across  the  river  and  making  ready  for  the  attack  on 
Vicksburg.     But  the   number   was  limited,   and  General 


VICKSBURG 

CAMPAIGN    MAP-N9Z 


273 


2/4  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

Grant  found  it  necessary  to  order  the  army  to  concentrate 
at  Hard  Times,  nearly  opposite  the  town  of  Grand  Gulf, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Big  Black  River. 

The  batteries  of  Grand  Gulf  were  engaged  by  the  gun- 
boats, but  owing  to  the  commanding  position  the  Confed- 
erates had  the  advantage,  and  it  was  not  deemed  prudent 
to  attempt  to  carry  the  place  by  assault  after  the  bom- 
bardment. The  troops  were  marched  across  the  point 
from  Hard  Times,  the  gun-boats  and  transports  ran  past 
the  batteries  of  Grand  Gulf  in  the  night  of  the  29th  of 
April,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  30th  the  work  of  ferry- 
ing the  troops  across  was  begun.  They  were  landed  at 
Bruinsburg,  supplied  with  three  days'  rations,  and  sent  on 
the  road  to  Port  Gibson,  where  a  force  of  the  enemy  was 
known  to  be  posted. 

General  McClernand's  corps  had  the  advance,  and  stead- 
ily drove  back  the  enemy  until  within  three  or  four  miles 
of  Port  Gibson.  The  Confederates  made  a  stand  on  the 
bank  of  Bayou  Pierre,  but  were  promptly  defeated  on  the 
1st  May,  and  fled  in  the  direction  of  Vicksburg.  Grand 
Gulf  was  abandoned  on  the  2d,  the  gun-boats  finding  it 
deserted  on  the  morning  of  the  3d.  Considerable  quan- 
tity of  ammunition  and  several  heavy  guns  were  captured 
here ;  the  fortifications  were  very  strong.  If  they  had 
been  completed  and  properly  garrisoned  it  would  have 
been  impossible  for  any  fleet  to  take  them. 

General  Grant's  plan  of  campaign  was  now  evident  to 
every  one,  and  the  army  moved  forward  with  the  anima- 
tion that  is  developed  by  hope  of  success.  The  plan  was 
to  advance  along  the  valley  of  the  Big  Black  River,  and 
the  road  to  Jackson,  until  fairly  in  the  rear  of  Vicksburg. 
When  this  position  was  gained  the  army  could  close  in 
on  the  town,  and  at  the  same  time  cut  off  the  arrival  of 
reinforcements  or  supplies  for  the  garrison.  But  there  was 
a  dangerous  feature  about  the  movement,  that  the  army, 
on  leaving  the  Mississippi,  would  have  to  cut  loose  from 


SIEGE  AND   FALL    OF  VICKSBURG.  2/5 

its  base,  and  in  case  of  defeat  its  retreat  again  to  the  river 
would  be  full  of  peril.  It  was  necessary  to  strike  out  for  a 
new  base,  which  General  Grant  decided  should  be  at 
Haines'  Bluff,  in  the  rear  of  Vicksburg.  By  swinging 
around  to  that  point  he  expected  to  open  communication 
to  the  banks  of  the  Yazoo,  where  he  could  meet  the  gun- 
boat and  transport  fleet. 

On  the  same  day  that  Grant  crossed  from  Hard  Times 
to  Bruinsburg,  the  15th  corps,  which  had  been  left  at 
Milliken's  Bend,  was  ordered  to  make  a  demonstration  on 
Haines'  BlufT,  as  though  with  a  serious  intent  of  capturing 
it.  General  Blair's  division,  accompanied  by  several  gun- 
boats, and  carried  on  ten  transports,  was  sent  up  the 
Yazoo  to  a  point  near  the  scene  of  the  disaster  in  Decem- 
ber. A  vigorous  demonstration  was  made  during  the 
whole  of  the  30th,  the  troops  being  landed  in  full  view  of 
the  enemy,  only  to  be  re-embarked  when  night  came  on. 
Similar  demonstrations  were  made  the  next  day  at  other 
points  on  the  Yazoo,  and  then  the  15th  corps  proceeded 
to  follow  the  rest  of  the  army  to  the  crossing  at  Grand 
Gulf  as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  demonstration  had  the 
desired  effect  of  drawing  the  attention  of  the  Confederates 
from  the  movements  at  Grand  Gulf,  and  prevented  their 
despatching  reinforcements  to  the  menaced  points. 

All  through  the  month  of  March  and  down  towards  the 
end  of  April  General  Pemberton  believed  that  General 
Grant  would  be  forced  to  abandon  his  attempt  to  take 
Vicksburg,  and  he  certainly  had  good  reason  for  his  belief 
in  the  invulnerability  of  the  place  after  so  many  and 
futile  attempts  at  its  occupation.  Pemberton  was  in 
constant  communication  with  General  Joe  Johnston,  who 
had  chief  command  over  the  armies  of  Bragg  and  Pem- 
berton, with  head-quarters  at  Tullohoma,  and  steadily  ad- 
vised his  superior  that  Vicksburg  was  in  no  danger  ;  but 
when  the  gun-boats  and  transports  passed  the  batteries, 
and  the  Union  army  assembled  in  front  of  Grand  Gulf, 


276  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Pemberton  saw  that  there  was  a  sudden  and  disagreeable 
change  in  the  situation.  On  the  29th  he  telegraphed  to 
Johnston  :  "  The  enemy  is  at  Hard  Times  in  large  force, 
with  barges  and  transports,  indicating  a  purpose  to  attack 
Grand  Gulf  with  a  view  to  Vicksburg."  Before  Johnston 
had  time  to  reply  and  give  instructions  how  to  prevent 
Grant  from  crossing  the  river,  the  Union  forces  had 
reached  the  east  bank,  and  were  pushing  on  towards 
Vicksburg. 

On  May  ist  Pemberton  telegraphed  :  "  A  furious  battle 
has  been  going  on  since  daylight  just  below  Port  Gibson. 
.  .  .  I  should  have  large  reinforcements.  Enemy's 
movements  threaten  Jackson,  and,  if  successful,  cut  off 
Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson."  Johnston  replied  with  in- 
structions for  Pemberton  to  unite  all  his  forces  and  beat 
Grant,  which  Pemberton  found  was  much  easier  to  say 
than  to  do.  He  did  his  best ;  but  the  enemy  were  too 
strong  for  him.  After  the  defeat  at  Port  Gibson  his 
forces  withdrew  in  the  direction  of  Vicksburg.  General 
Grant  advanced  in  pursuit  to  where  the  road  from  Port 
Gibson  to  Vicksburg  crosses  the  Big  Black  River  at  Hank- 
inson's  Ferry. 

Here  the  Union  army  halted  from  the  3d  to  the  8th  of 
May,  waiting  for  supplies  from  Grand  Gulf  and  for  the 
arrival  of  the  15th  corps,  which  was  hastening  on  from 
Milliken's  Bend.  Demonstrations  were  made  in  the  di- 
rection of  Vicksburg,  which  was  twenty  miles  away,  as 
though  a  direct  attack  was  intended ;  but  that  was  not 
General  Grant's  plan.  His  real  design  was  to  keep  his 
forces  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Big  Black,  and  strike  the 
Vicksburg  and  Jackson  Railway  about  midway  between 
the  two  places,  thus  severing  the  connection  with  Pember- 
ton and  any  reinforcements  that  might  come  to  him  from 
the  east.  This  would  he  done  with  the  left  and  centre 
of  the  army,  while  the  right  wing  would  make  a  detour 
eastward   through  Raymond  to  Jackson.     After  destroy- 


SIEGE  AND  EALL  OF  VICKsBURG.  2// 

ing  the  stores  at  that  point  and  disabling  the  railway,  the 
right  wing  (McPherson's  corps)  would  march  westward  to 
join  the  rest  of  the  army  for  moving  on  Vicksburg. 

Four  days  were  occupied  in  carrying  out  these  move- 
ments ;  but  unforeseen  circumstances  caused  a  change  of 
plan.  On  the  12th  of  May,  when  approaching  Raymond, 
McPherson's  corps  encountered  two  Confederate  brigades, 
which  were  defeated  after  a  fight  of  two  hours.  They 
retreated  on  Jackson,  and  were  followed  by  McPherson, 
who  was  confident  of  capturing  the  place  without  much 
difificulty,  when  news  came  during  the  night  that  John- 
ston was  momentarily  expected  in  Jackson  to  take  com- 
mand in  person,  and  that  troops  were  being  concentrated 
there  with  a  view  to  strengthening  Vicksburg.  General 
Grant  immediately  ordered  the  left  and  centre  of  the 
army  to  march  on  Jackson,  where  it  would  join  the  right 
wing,  and  be  able  to  cope  with  whatever  force  might  be 
assembled  there.  Pemberton  was  at  Edwards  Station, 
on  the  Vicksburg  and  Jackson  Railway,  and  waiting  to 
deliver  battle  on  the  appearance  of  the  enemy.  But  the 
latter  turned  eastward   before  the  railway  was  reached. 

Johnston  arrived  at  Jackson  on  the  night  of  the  13th, 
and  immediately  perceived  the  danger  of  the  situation, 
with  the  Union  army  between  himself  and  Pemberton. 
He  immediately  sent  orders  for  the  latter  to  move  east 
to  Clinton,  and  attack  the  rear  of  the  Union  army,  while 
he  engaged  it  in  front.  Pemberton  had  17,000  men  at 
Edwards  Station,  while  Johnston  had  some  10,000  or 
12,000  in  Jackson.  If  these  had  co-operated  there  was  a 
possibility  of  defeating  the  Union  army,  though  hardly  a 
probability.  But  without  co-operation  there  was  no  hope 
of  success.  Pemberton  did  not  move  as  ordered,  and 
when  McPherson's  and  the  15th  corps  reached  Jack- 
son on  the  14th,  all  that  Johnston  could  do  was  to  engage 
in  a  sort  of  rear  guard  fight  for  two  hours  or  so,  while  he 
removed  the  stores,  or  as  much  of  them  as  possible,  along 


278  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

the  road  to  Canton.  After  destroying  what  they  had  no 
use  for,  disabling  the  railway,  and  burning  bridges,  the 
Union  troops  faced  westward,  and  marched  near  the  line 
of  the  railway  in  the  direction  of  Vicksburg. 

Meantime  Pemberton,  after  disregarding  Johnston's 
orders  to  move  on  Clinton,  called  a  council  of  war  of  his 
officers  ;  the  majority  of  them  favored  moving  as  John- 
ston had  directed,  which  would  enable  the  column,  in  case 
of  defeat,  to  connect  with  Johnston  by  making  a  detour 
to  the  north  from  Clinton.  But  Pemberton  was  opposed 
to  any  movement  which  would  separate  him  from  Vicks- 
burg, which  he  considered  his  base,  though  it  was  obvi- 
ously untenable  in  the  then  position  of  the  Union  army. 
He  advised  a  movement  towards  Raymond  to  sever 
Grant's  communications  with  his  base  at  Grand  Gulf,  and 
was  supported  by  a  minority  of  the  officers  forming  the 
council.  He  accordingly  directed  all  his  available  forces, 
about  17,500,  to  move  in  the  direction  of  Raymond  on 
the  afternoon  of  the  15th. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  movement  was  a 
good  one,  but  Grant  had  foreseen  the  possibility  of  it, 
and  on  the  nth  he  telegraphed  to  General  Halleck  that 
he  should  communicate  with  Grand  Gulf  no  more  unless 
it  became  necessary  to  send  a  train  with  a  heavy  escort. 
"  You  may  not  hear  from  me  again  for  several  weeks," 
the  despatch  concluded,  and  thus  the  army  had  dropped 
its  base  and  was  moving  en  Vair.  Therefore  when  Pem- 
berton marched  on  the  15th  to  sever  Grant's  communica- 
tions with  Grand  Gulf,  there  were  none  to  sever.  On  the 
same  day  McClernand  was  ordered  to  move  his  corps  to 
Edwards  Station  and  continue  the  advance  till  he  could 
feel  the  enemy,  but  not  to  bring  on  a  general  engagement 
unless  he  was  confident  of  victory.  General  Blair's  divi- 
sion of  the  15th  corps  was  moved  with  McClernand,  and 
the  rest  of  the  15th,  together  with  McPherson's  corps, 
was  ordered  to  join  McClernand  as  rapidly  as  possible. 


SIEGE  AND  FALL    OF  VICKSBURG.  279 

By  night  the  Union  troops  were  within  ;i  few  miles  of 
Edwards  Station,  and  so  close  to  Pemberton's  army  on  the 
Raymond  road  that  their  pickets  were  within  speaking 
distance.  Pemberton  on  the  morning  of  the  i6th  re- 
ceived orders  from  Johnston  to  march  northward,  but  he 
soon  found  he  could  not  do  so  without  being  met  by  the 
Union  army,  which  was  interposing  between  him  and 
the  direction  of  the  Polar  Star.  He  took  up  a  strong  posi- 
tion at  Champion  Hill  and  prepared  for  battle:  his  left, 
Stevenson's  division,  occupying  Champion  Hill ;  the  cen- 
tre, Bowen's  division,  extending  across  Baker's  Creek  ;  and 
his  right,  Loring's  division,  stretching  to  the  southward 
among  thick  woods  and  deep  ravines  with  sharpK' 
sloping  sides.  Champion  Hill  is  thickly  wooded,  and  in 
front  of  it  is  a  cleared  valley,  the  clearing  extending  a 
short  distance  up  the  side  of  the  hill. 

Hovey's  division  of  McClernand's  corps  was  the  first 
to  engage  the  enemy,  which  it  did  by  coming  up  on  the 
Confederate  left.  Grant  saw  that  a  general  battle  was 
imminent,  and  gave  orders  for  Hovey  not  to  engage  seri- 
ously until  the  rest  of  McClernand's  corps  could  come 
up,  and  also  McPherson's,  which  was  pushing  forward  as 
rapidly  as  possible.  McPherson's  corps  was  thrown  to 
the  right  so  as  to  envelop  the  Confederate  left  and 
threaten  his  rear,  while  McClernand's  divisions  (other 
than  Hovey's)  were  marching  towards  the  Confederate 
right  and  centre.  The  firing  between  Hovey's  division 
and  the  Confederate  skirmishers  gradually  increased,  and 
by  eleven  o'clock  the  skirmishing  had  swelled  into  a  bat- 
tle. The  odds  were  against  Hovey's  division  ;  one  bri- 
gade and  then  another  of  Crocker's  division  of  McPher- 
son's corps  were  sent  to  assist  Hovey,  while  Logan's 
division  (of  McPherson  corps)  was  effectively  striking 
against  the  Confederate  rear  and  distracting  his  work  in 
front.  In  spite  of  this  diversion,  the  Confederates  were 
able,  with   their  superior  numbers,  to  push  back  Hovey 


28o  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

and  those  who  came  to  his  support  ;  but  the  line  retreated 
slowl}',  and  ultimately  gained  a  position  where  it  could 
pour  a  fire  of  artillery  upon  the  Confederate  line  and 
force    it    back    in    turn. 

Logan's  division  worked  so  well  around  to  the  enemy's 
rear  that  Pemberton  realized  his  danger  of  being  cut  off 
from  Vicksburg  and  ordered  a  retreat.  Stevenson's  and 
Bowen's  divisions  made  good  their  escape,  but  Loring's 
division  was  cut  off  and  compelled  to  retire  to  the  south- 
ward, abandoning  all  its  guns  and  losing  many  men,  who 
were  captured.  Loring  found  it  impossible  to  retreat 
into  Vicksburg,  but  by  making  a  wide  detour  south  and 
east  he  reached  Jackson  three  days  later  (on  the  19th), 
and  reported  to  Johnston  with  what  he  had  saved  from 
his  command. 

The  Union  loss  in  this  battle  (Champion  Hill)  was  426 
killed,  1,842  wounded,  and  189  missing.  The  Confeder- 
ates lost  quite  as  heavily  in  killed  and  wounded,  about 
2,000  prisoners,  15  or  20  guns,  and  three  or  four  thousand 
small-arms.  The  battle  was  fought  mainly  by  Hovey's 
division,  which  lost  about  1,200  in  killed  and  wounded,  as 
it  was  engaged  for  several  hours  before  the  other  divisions 
could  come  to  its  aid.  This  assertion  is  not  intended  to 
detract  in  any  way  from  the  other  divisions,  as  all  fought 
gallantly  as  soon  as  they  reached  the  field.  The  15th 
corps  was  too  far  away  to  be  of  service,  as  it  was  still 
marching  from  Jackson,  and  only  three  divisions  of 
McClernand's  corps  could  come  up  before  the  battle  ended. 
Two  divisions  (Carr's  and  Osterhaus')  of  McClernand's 
corps  pursued  the  fleeing  enemy  until'  dark,  capturing 
many  wagons  and  adding  considerably  to  the  number  of 
prisoners. 

The  result  of  the  battle  of  Champion  Hill  was  to  sever 
completely  the  communications  between  Johnston  and 
Pemberton,  and  shut  the  latter  up  in  Vicksburg.  It  was 
virtually  the  beginning  of  the  siege. 


SIEGE   AND   FALL    OF  VICKSBUKG.  28 1 

Next  morning  (i/th)  the  enemy  was  vigorously  pur- 
sued to  the  banks  of  the  Black  River,  where  they  made  a 
stand  to  cover  the  passage  of  their  train  and  artillery 
across  that  stream.  Besides  the  railway  bridge,  Pember- 
ton  had  a  bridge  which  consisted  mainly  of  three  steam- 
boats, but  he  was  not  able  to  get  all  his  impedimenta  over 
the  river.  Carr's  division  and  Lawler's  brigade  carried 
the  Confederate  defences  after  a  fight  of  about  two 
hours,  and  Pemberton  fled  in  the  direction  of  Vicksburg, 
leaving  i8  guns,  1,500  prisoners,  several  thousand  stand  of 
arms,  and  large  quantities  of  commissary  stores,  to  fall 
into  the  Union  hands.  The  loss  of  Grant's  forces  in  the 
affair  of  the  Black  River  was  29  killed  and  242  wounded. 
Pemberton  burned  the  bridges  as  he  retired,  and  thus  de- 
layed pursuit.  McClernand  and  McPherson  built  bridges 
during  the  night,  and  the  15th  corps,  which  had  the  only 
pontoon  train,  crossed  at  Bridgeport  several  miles  above. 

Each  corps  began  crossing  at  eight  A.M.  on  the  iBth, 
the  15th  pressing  forward  to  within  3I  miles  of  Vicksburg, 
when  it  turned  to  the  right  and  occupied  Walnut  Hills  to 
open  communication  with  the  Yazoo.  McPherson  fol- 
lowed the  route  of  the  15th  corps  to  where  it  turned  off 
to  the  right,  and  there  he  halted  for  the  night.  McCler- 
nand advanced  on  the  direct  road  from  Jackson  to  Vicks- 
burg, and  when  near  the  city  turned  to  the  left.  On 
the  morning  of  the  19th  the  investment  of  the  city  was 
practically  completed,  though  there  were  several  gaps  to 
be  filled  in  the  lines  of  the  besiegers.  Vicksburg  was  in 
a  state  of  siege. 

Communication  was  opened  with  the  gun-boat  fleet, 
which  had  been  guarding  the  front  of  Vicksburg  and  pre- 
venting the  receipt  of  supplies  by  river.  The  gun-boats 
then  ascended  to  attack  Haines'  Bluff,  which  the  Confed- 
erates immediately  evacuated,  as  their  position  was  no 
longer  tenable  with  the  Union  forces  in  their  rear.  The 
fortifications  at   Haines'  Bluff  were   found  to  be  strongly 


282  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

constructed,  and  abundantly  supplied  with  material  of 
war,  the  ammunition  being  sufficient  for  a  long  siege. 
The  author  of  "  The  American  Conflict  "  says :  "  It  would 
hardly  be  credited  on  other  testimony  than  his  own,  that 
our  admiral  proceeded  to  destroy  this  inestimable  material 
of  war  with  full  knowledge  that  Grant's  triumphant  army 
was  at  hand  to  defend  and  utilize  it." 

General  Grant,  apprehending  an  attack  by  Johnston's 
relieving  force  from  Jackson,  and  counting  much  on  the 
demoralization  of  Pemberton's  command,  ordered  an  as- 
sault on  the  20th,  at  2  P.M.  The  Union  flag  was  planted 
on  the  Confederate  earthworks  by  Blair's  division  of  the 
15th  corps,  but  an  entrance  was  not  effected  owing  to  the 
severity  of  the  Confederate  fire.  A  second  assault  on  a 
larger  scale  was  made  on  the  22d,  at  10  A.M.,  and  to  make 
sure  of  a  simultaneous  movement,  the  corps  commanders 
set  their  watches  by  General  Grant's.  The  gun-boats  co- 
operated by  opening  fire  in  front,  and  at  the  appointed 
time  the  assault  was  general  along  the  whole  line. 

Sergeant  Griffith  and  ii  men  of  the  22d  Iowa  infantry, 
of  McClernand's  corps  entered  one  of  the  bastions  of  a 
fort  in  front  of  McClernand's  position,  but  all  except  the 
sergeant  were  killed  or  captured.  In  two  instances  at 
other  points  regimental  flags  were  planted  on  the  bastions, 
but  that  was  all.  The  whole  attack  was  repulsed  with  a 
loss  of  nearly  3,000  in  killed,  wounded,  and  captured.  At 
one  time  General  McClernand  thought  his  attack  had 
been  successful,  and  sent  word  to  that  effect  to  General 
Grant,  and  at  the  same  time  he  asked  reinforcements, 
which  were  sent.  Colonel  Boomer  commanding  one  of 
'the  reinforcing  brigades  was  killed  just  as  his  men  went 
into  action,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  assaulting  force 
was  hauled  off. 

It  was  evident  that  Vicksburg  could  only  be  taken  by 
siege,  and  General  Grant  sat  down  in  front  of  it  for  that 
purpose.     When  he  invested   the   place  his   forces    were 


284  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

about  equal  to  those  of  Pemberton  whom  he  was  besieging ; 
each  had  not  far  from  30,000  men,  and  it  has  been  claimed 
by  some  historians  that  the  Confederates  were  numerically 
superior.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  relative  conditions  of  the 
two  armies  was  vastly  different.  The  Union  forces  were 
flushed  with  victory,  while  the  Confederates  were  disheart- 
ened by  defeat  ;  the  Union  forces  were  well  fed  and  cloth- 
ed, having  opened  communications  with  their  heavily 
laden  transports  in  the  Yazoo,  while  the  Confederates  were 
poorly  supplied  and  had  starvation  staring  them  in  the 
face.  Grant  had  an  abundance  of  ammunition,  while  Pem- 
berton was  but  poorly  supplied,  and  of  his  30,000  men 
there  were  6,000  in  hospital,  so  that  he  could  hardly  mus- 
ter more  than  15,000  effectives. 

Reinforcements,  provisions,  munitions,  artillery,  and  in- 
trenching tools  were  sent  down  the  river  to  Grant,  and  the 
men  set  to  work  with  a  will  to  dig  their  way  into  Vicks- 
burg.  The  rugged  hills,  which  afforded  excellent  ground 
for  constructing  works  of  defence  before  the  siege,  were 
utilized  by  the  besiegers  while  they  prosecuted  their  enter- 
prise. Day  and  night  the  cannon  rained  shot  and  shell 
into  the  doomed  cit}',  the  land  forces  under  Grant  being 
seconded  vigorously  by  the  gun-boats  and  mortar  rafts  of 
the  flotilla.  Mine  after  mine  was  run  under  the  enemy's 
works,  and  met  by  countermines,  which  were  often  so  close 
that  the  diggers  were  separated  only  by  thin  curtains  of 
earth  and  could  plainly  hear  the  blows  of  pick  and  spade. 
Portions  of  the  defensive  works  were  blown  up,  but  no 
practicable  breach  was  made  to  justify  an  assault  in  force. 

Famine  was  busily  at  work  inside  the  walls  of  Vicksburg, 
and  knowing  the  state  of  affairs  there,  General  Grant  was 
willing  to  wait  patiently  for  the  result.  A  Confederate 
ofUcer  thus  tells  the  story  : 

About  the  thirty-fifth  day  provisions  began  to  get  very 
scarce,  and  the  advent  of  General  Johnston's  relieving  force 
was  anxiously  and  momentarily  looked  for.      Mule  meat  was 


SIEGE  AND  FALL    OF  VICKSBURG.  285 

the  common  fare  of  all  alike,  and  even  dogs  became  in  request 
for  the  table.  Bean  meal  was  made  into  bread,  and  corn  meal 
into  coffee,  and  in  these  straits  the  garrison  patiently  dragged 
on  the  weary  length  of  one  day  after  another,  under  a  scorch- 
ing sun,  the  stench  from  the  unburied  corpses  all  around  alone 
causing  the  strongest-minded,  firmest-nerved,  to  grow  impa- 
tient for  the  day  of  deliverance.  The  enemy  pushed  their 
works  ;  they  blew  up  several  forts,  and  with  them  the  garrison, 
and  attempted  to  charge  ;  but  the  meagre  and  famished  yet 
steadfast  garrison  still  defiantly  held  the  key  to  the  Mississippi. 
But  every  thing  must  have  an  end.  General  Pemberton 
learned  from  General  Johnston  that  he  could  not  afford  him 
relief,  and  as  the  garrison  was  too  famished  and  reduced  to  cut 
its  way  out,  he  determined  to  capitulate. 

During  the  siege  Johnston  made  great  efforts  to  gather 
an  army  to  relieve  Vicksburg,  but  he  was  unable  to  do  so 
until  too  late.  On  the  29th  June  he  left  Jackson  with 
about  24,000  men,  and  marched  in  the  direction  of  the  Big 
Black,  in  the  hope  of  creating  a  diversion  sufficient  to 
enable  Pemberton's  army  to  cut  its  way  out.  On  the  3d 
July  he  sent  word  to  Pemberton  to  hold  out  until  the  7th, 
when  such  a  diversion  would  be  made,  but  already  Pem- 
berton had  begun  negotiations  for  surrender. 

On  the  morningof  the  3d  July,  after  45  days  of  isolation, 
General  Pemberton  ordered  a  white  flag  displayed  on  the 
bastion  of  one  of  the  earthworks.  The  flag  was  shown  in 
front  of  General  A.  J.  Smith's  division,  and  firing  ceased 
at  that  point.  An  officer  went  to  ascertain  the  reason  for 
the  display  of  the  flag,  and  found  that  General  Bowen,  who 
commanded  one  of  the  Confederate  divisions,  and  Colonel 
Montgomery  of  General  Pemberton's  staff  had  a  com- 
munication for  General  Grant.  They  were  blindfolded 
and  taken  to  the  tent  of  General  Burbridge,  whence  the 
letter  was  forwarded  to  the  commander-in-chief.  It 
proved  to  be  an  application  for  an  armistice  with  a  view 
to  arranging  terms  for  capitulation.   General  Grant  replied 


286  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO, 

that  he  could  Hsten  to  nothing  short  of  unconditional  sur- 
render, but  expressed  a  willingness  to  meet  General  Pem- 
berton  during  the  afternoon  at  any  hour  he  might  name. 
Three  o'clock  was  appointed  for  the  conference,  and  orders 
were  given  to  cease  firing  along  the  whole  line  at  that 
hour. 

The  conference  was  begun  in  presence  of  several  ofificers 
of  both  armies,  but  it  had  not  progressed  far  before  Gen- 
eral Grant  invited  General  Pemberton  to  walk  away  a  little 
distance  where  they  would  be  unheard  by  others.  They 
sat  down  under  a  tree  and  talked  for  about  an  hour.  The 
conference  was  ended  without  any  agreement  as  to  the 
details  of  the  surrender,  General  Grant  agreeing  to  send 
in  his  proposals  that  evening.  They  were  sent  in  accord- 
ingly, General  Grant  demanding  the  surrender  of  the  works 
and  city,  prisoners  to  be  paroled,  private  soldiers  to  be  al- 
lowed all  their  clothing  but  no  other  property,  and  offi- 
cers to  retain  their  side  arms,  private  baggage,  and  one 
horse  to  each  mounted  officer. 

Pemberton  replied,  accepting  the  terms  in  a  general 
way,  but  making  several  stipulations  to  which  Grant  re- 
fused to  accede.  In  his  reply  to  Pemberton,  Grant  said 
that  if  the  terms  were  not  accepted  by  9  A.M.  on  the  fol- 
lowing day,  they  would  be  considered  rejected.  Accept- 
ance could  be  signified  by  the  display  of  white  flags  along 
the  Confederate  lines  before  that  hour. 

The  white  flags  were  displayed  and  the  long  siege  was 
over.  At  9  A.M.  General  McPherson  rode  into  Vicksburg 
to  receive  the  surrender;  he  met  Pemberton  half  a  mile 
inside  the  lines,  where  they  were  soon  joined  by  Grant. 
Gen.  Logan  went  in  to  establish  a  provost  guard  ;  the  stars 
and  stripes  were  hoisted  over  the  court-house,  and  the 
soldiers  sang  "  Rally  round  the  Flag  "  with  an  enthusiasm 
which  had  a  double  force  in  view  of  the  triumph  and  the 
fact  that  the  surrender  took  place  on  the  Fourth  of  July, 
the  anniversary  of  the  nation's  birth.      Early  in  the  after- 


SIEGE  AND  FALL    OF  VICKSBURG.  287 

noon  the  Union  fleet  of  gun-boats  and  transports  was  tied 
along  the  levee  of  Vicksburg,  and  the  citizens,  who  had 
been  hiding  in  caves  and  living  in  constant  terror  of  shot 
and  shell  for  six  long  weeks,  were  able  to  walk  about 
without  danger. 

General  Grant  reported  his  losses,  from  the  day  he 
landed  at  Bruinsburg  until  the  surrender,  at  943  killed, 
7,095  wounded,  and  537  missing,  a  total  of  8,575,  of  whom 
4,236  fell  before  Vicksburg,  the  most  of  them  in  the  assault 
of  May  22d.  Twenty-seven  thousand  prisoners  were  pa- 
roled in  Vicksburg,  of  whom  only  15,000  were  effective  for 
duty.  The  loss  of  the  enemy  in  the  whole  campaign,  from 
Bruinsburg  to  the  surrender,  was  37,000  prisoners,  among 
them  15  general  ofificers,  and  at  least  10,000  killed  and 
wounded,  including  3  generals.  Arms  and  munitions  for 
an  army  of  60,000  men  were  taken,  besides  a  large  amount 
of  other  public  property,  such  as  railway  cars,  locomotives, 
steamboats,  cotton,  etc.  A  vast  amount  was  destroyed 
to  prevent  its  capture. 

Immediately  after  the  surrender  of  Vicksburg,  General 
Grant  ordered  the  division  of  General  F.  J.  Herron  to  go 
to  aid  in  the  siege  of  Port  Hudson,  which  was  being  con- 
ducted by  General  Banks.  Port  Hudson  is  200  miles 
below  Vicksburg,  and  was  invested  about  the  time  General 
Grant  drew  his  lines  around  Vicksburg.  General  Gardner, 
its  commander,  heard  of  the  surrender  of  Vicksburg,  and 
sent  a  flag  of  truce  to  General  Banks  to  ascertain  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  report.  The  latter  sent  a  copy  of  General 
Grant's  despatch  announcing  the  momentous  event,  and, 
on  being  satisfied  of  its  correctness.  General  Gardner 
made  a  formal  surrender  of  Port  Hudson  and  its  garrison, 
6,000  strong.  General  Banks  received  General  Gardner's 
sword,  and  immediately  returned  it  in  consideration  of  the 
gallantry  its  owner  had  displayed  in  the  defence  of  the 
post  intrusted  to  his  charge. 

News  of  the  surrender  of  Port   I  iudson  arrived  just  as 


288  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

General  Herron's  division  had  embarked.  Consequently 
its  destination  was  changed  to  the  Yazoo  River,  which  it 
ascended  to  Yazoo  City,  where  it  captured  one  steamboat 
and  some  other  property.  Twenty-two  steamboats  had 
been  carried  farther  up  the  Yazoo,  where  they  were  burned 
or  sunk  by  the  Confederates  to  save  them  from  capture. 
Herron  captured  and  brought  away  300  prisoners,  6  heavy 
guns,  250  small-arms,  800  horses,  and  2,000  bales  of  cotton 
belonging  to  the  Confederate  government. 

In  its  consequences  the  capture  of  Vicksburg,  naturally 
and  imperatively  followed  by  that  of  Port  Hudson,  was  of 
the  highest  importance.  The  Mississippi  River  was  opened 
from  its  mouth  to  the  head  of  navigation,  and  "The 
Father  of  Waters  flowed  unvexed  to  the  sea."  The  Con- 
federacy was  split  in  two,  and  its  western  half  could  no 
longer  send  supplies  of  cattle,  salt,  provisions,  and  other 
needed  articles  to  the  armies  in  the  east.  The  37,000 
prisoners  taken  in  the  campaign,  together  with  the  10,000 
killed  and  wounded,  were  an  army  which  the  Confederacy, 
already  heavily  overmatched  by  the  Union  forces,  could 
sadly  afford  to  lose.  It  was  an  army  to  which  the  gov- 
ernment at  Richmond  had  confided  the  defence  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  with  its  surrender  was  gone  the  hope  of 
holding  any  point  on  the  great  river. 

In  a  speech  at  Jackson,  Mississippi,  in  December,  1862, 
the  President  of  the  Confederacy  urged  the  citizens  to 
go  to  Vicksburg  to  "  assist  in  preserving  the  Mississippi 
River,  that  great  artery  of  the  country,  and  thus  conduce, 
more  than  in  any  other  way,  to  the  perpetuation  of  the 
Confederacy,  and  the  success  of  the  cause."  It  is  fair  to 
say  that  this  view  of  the  value  of  the  possession  of  the 
mighty  stream  was  shared  by  all  the  people  of  the  South, 
and  no  less  by  those  of  the  North.  Consequently  the  fall 
of  Vicksburg  was  an  irreparable  loss  to  the  one  and  a  gain 
of  immense  importance  to  the  other.  It  was  beyond  all 
question  one  of  the  most  decisive  events  of  the  war. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 


BATTLE   OF   FIVE    FORKS   AND   LEE'S     SURRENDER — 1865. 


In  the  latter  part  of  May,  1865,  a  steamer  which  had 
left  New  York  two  months  before  for  San  Francisco, 
by  way  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  touched  at  Callao, 
Peru.  Her  passengers  were  anxious  for  news  from  home. 
Hurrying  on  shore,  one  of  them  found  a  man  who 
had  just  arrived  from  New  York  by  steamer  from  that 
port  to  Aspinwall,  and  the  English  mail  steamer  from 
Panama.  "  What  has  happened  in  the  last  sixty  days, 
and  how  is  the  war  getting  on  ? "  was  the  passenger's 
inquiry. 

"  Oh,  nothing  much,"  was  the  reply.  "  Richmond  's 
taken,  Lee  and  Johnston's  armies  have  surrendered,  Lin- 
coln has  been  assassinated,  and  Jeff.  Davis  is  captured." 
It  is  not  an  overstatement  to  say  that  the  listener  was 
deprived  of  the  power  of  speech  for  fully  a  minute,  so 
great  was  his  astonishment  at  this  momentous  intelligence. 

The  closing  scenes  of  the  rebellion  were  dramatically 
rapid  in  their  movement,  hardly  less  so  than  represented 
by  the  terse  declaration  quoted  above.  The  battle  that 
compelled  the  evacuation  of  Petersburg  and  Richmond 
was  fought  on  the  first  day  of  April,  the  evacuation  took 
place  on  the  2d  and  3d,  Lee  surrendered  his  army  on  the 
9th,  President  Lincoln  was  assassinated  on  the  15th,  John- 
ston's army  surrendered  on  the  26th,  General  Dick  Taylor's 
army  surrendered  May  4th,  President  Davis  was  captured 
on  the  nth,  on  the  22d  May  a  proclamation  of  President 

2S9 


290  DECISIVE   BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Johnson  opened  the  Southern  portr.  to  commerce  as  of 
old,  and  on  the  29th  a  proclamation  of  general  amnesty 
was  issued, — and  all  this  within  two  short  months. 

The  battle  of  Five  Forks  may  be  regarded  as  the  decisive 
battle  that  ended  the  war,  as  its  result  compelled  the  re- 
treat, and  led  to  the  capture  of  Lee  and  his  gallant  army, 
that  had  so  long  defended  Virginia  against  the  Northern 
forces.  For  four  years  Lee  had  prevented  the  capture  of 
Richmond  ;  for  four  years  he  had  repeatedly  driven  back 
the  Union  army  whenever  it  sought  to  advance,  and  on  two 
occasions  he  had  crossed  the  Potomac  and  endeavored  to 
carry  the  war  into  the  Northern  States.  Since  his  defeat  at 
Gettysburg  many  a  battle  had  been  fought  and  many  a 
noble  life  expended  in  the  effort  to  capture  or  defend  the 
capital  of  the  Confederacy.    But  the  end  was  approaching. 

The  Northern  press  and  public  clamored  for  the  cap- 
ture of  Richmond,  and  down  to  near  the  close  of  the  war 
that  rebellious  city  was  the  goal  which  the  commanders 
of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  struggled  to  reach.  Seven 
in  all  had  made  the  attempt,  McDowell,  McClellan,  Pope, 
Burnside,  Hooker,  Meade,  and  last  of  all  Grant.  After 
the  fall  of  Vicksburg,  he  had  been  summoned  to  Wash- 
ington, and  placed  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac, under  fewer  restrictions  than  had  been  given  to  the 
commanders  who  preceded  him.  All  his  predecessors  had 
been  overruled  and  hampered  in  their  movements  by 
orders  from  Washington  ;  Grant  declined  the  command 
unless  he  could  have  it  without  interference,  and,  doubt- 
less with  great  reluctance,  his  demand  was  conceded  by 
the  Washington  authorities. 

Between  Gettysburg  and  Five  Forks  great  progress  had 
been  made  towards  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion. 
Savan'^ih,  Wilmington,  and  Charleston  successively  fell 
into  Lnion  hands,  Mobile  was  securely  blockaded,  and 
the  Confederates  were  without  a  port  of  consequence 
along  their  entire  coast  line  of  ocean  and  gulf.     After  the 


BA  TTLE  OF  FIVE  FORKS  AND  LEE'S  SURRENDER.     29 1 

opening  of  the  Mississippi  by  the  capture  of  Vicksburg 
and  Port  Hudson,  the  army  which  had  accomplished  that 
great  task  was  drawn  to  the  eastward,  and  marched  to  the 
sea  through  Tennessee  and  Georgia,  gaining  victories  at 
Chicamauga,  Chattanooga,  Atlanta,  and  other  points. 
Hood's  Confederate  army  \\as  practically  annihilated  by 
Thomas  at  Nashville,  and  the  armies  of  Hardee,  Bragg, 
and  Beauregard  had  been  gradually  assembled  under  Joe 
Johnston,  and  formed  a  veteran  force  which  was  not  to 
be  lightly  considered. 

And  now,  early  in  1865,  while  the  Northern  press  and 
public  clamored  as  loudly  as  ever  for  the  capture  of 
Richmond,  that  event  was  the  very  thing  which  Gen- 
eral Grant  did  not  desire.  For  the  capture  of  Richmond 
meant  the  retirement  of  Lee's  army  to  ajunction  with  John- 
ston, and  the  combination  of  those  armies  under  two  such 
wily  commanders  would  be  a  serious  danger  to  the  Union 
"  Army  of  the  Mississippi,"  which,  having  made  its  march 
to  the  sea,  was  now  advancing  northward,  through  the 
Carolinas,  to  attack  Johnston.  That  it  could  defeat  him 
single-handed  there  was  no  reasonable  doubt,  but  with 
Lee's  army  added  to  Johnston's,  there  was  great  danger 
of  a  serious  reverse  to  the  Union  arms.  Consequently 
Grant's  great  desire  was  to  keep  Lee  in  Richmond  until 
the  Union  army  could  be  so  disposed  that  escape  would 
be  impossible. 

Since  the  early  days  of  March,  Lee  had  been  planning 
to  retire  from  Richmond  and  join  his  army  with  that  of 
Johnston,  and  information  of  this  design  had  been  brought 
to  General  Grant.  Lee  and  Johnston  had  made  their 
preliminary  arrangements,  and  the  route  b)-  which  the 
army  would  retreat  was  already  laid  out.  The  Richmond 
papers  demanded  that  the  city  should  be  held  at  all  haz- 
ards, and  the  Confederate  government  was  unwilling 
that  the  fact  that  a  retirement  had  been  thought  of 
should  be  known.     The  most  emphatic  denials  were  given 


292  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

to  the  rumor  when  it  first  went  abroad,  and  to  show  the 
intention  of  holding  on  to  the  place  new  fortifications 
were  constructed  at  several  points.  But  Grant  was  not 
to  be  deceived,  and  he  pushed  his  preparations  for  taking 
the  Confederate  army  in  a  trap. 

With  io,cxx>  cavalry  Sheridan  moved  like  a  whirlwind 
through  the  Shenandoah  Valley  and  made  a  wide  sweep 
to  the  left  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  meeting  little 
opposition,  and  demonstrating  that  all  troops  that  could 
possibly  be  withdrawn  from  isolated  points  had  been  sent 
to  Richmond.  Wilson,  with  13,000  men  in  his  command, 
swept  through  Alabama  and  Georgia ;  and  about  the  same 
time  Stoneman  advanced  from  Knoxville,  Tennessee,  with 
a  strong  column  of  cavalry,  with  which  he  devastated  West- 
ern North  Carolina.  These  various  raids  demonstrated 
that  the  Confederacy  was  but  a  shell  whose  kernel  had 
been  exhausted.  All  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  had 
gone  to  the  war,  and  there  was  no  remaining  material  for 
the  formation  of  new  armies. 

Though  much  larger  on  paper,  Lee's  army  was  not  over 
50,000  strong  in  effectives,  while  that  of  Johnston  could 
not  muster  more  than  30,000.  Against  Lee,  Grant  could 
bring  a  force  of  double  the  number,  and  while  the  former 
planned  to  escape  and  join  Johnston,  with  whom  he 
hoped  to  deliver  a  crushing  blow  to  the  Army  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi before  Grant  could  overtake  him,  the  latter  was 
quietly  studying  to  prevent  the  escape.  Lee's  plan  was 
to  retire  by  the  Cox  road,  south  of  the  Appomattox,  and 
in  order  to  cover  his  movement  he  made  on  the  25th  of 
March  an  attack  on  Fort  Steadman,  on  the  Union  right. 
Grant  was  in  position  in  front  of  Petersburg,  so  that  his 
army  extended  nearly  to,  but  did  not  cover,  the  Cox  road. 
Lee  thought  that  the  troops  near  the  Cox  road  would  be 
drawn  away  to  support  the  attack  on  Fort  Steadman. 
The  attack  was  made  by  two  divisions  of  Gordon's  corps, 
and  the  fort  was  carried  in  fine  style.     But  the  attack  was 


293 


294  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

not  supported,  and  the  result  was  the  Confederates  were 
compelled  to  retire  after  heavy  losses  in  killed  and  wound- 
ed, and  nearly  2,000  prisoners. 

The  Union  forces  were  not  withdrawn  from  the  Cox 
road  as  Lee  had  expected,  and  consequently  he  could  not 
carry  out  his  plan  of  escaping  by  that  route.  Realizing 
that  Lee  must  have  withdrawn  men  from  other  parts  of 
his  lines  in  order  to  attack  Fort  Steadman,  Gen.  Meade 
ordered  an  advance  of  the  6th  and  2d  corps,  who  were  in 
position  to  the  left  of  Fort  Steadman.  He  found  what 
he  had  expected,  and  the  Union  troops  took  possession  of 
the  Confederate  picket  line  and  permanently  held  it. 
Thus  Lee's  movement,  which  was  intended  to  cut  the 
Union  army  in  two  by  the  occupation  of  Fort  Steadman 
and  the  works  behind  it,  and  thus  afford  him  ..a  opportu- 
nity to  escape,  was  not  only  a  failure,  but  resulted  in  his 
loss  of  important  points. 

This  affair  did  not  in  the  least  interfere  with  (Grant's 
plans,  which  were  for  a  general  movement  on  the  29th 
March.  He  proposed  to  swing  a  portion  of  his  arm\- 
around  "  by  the  left,"  and  enable  it  to  turn  completely  the 
Confederate  right.  By  the  success  of  this  movement  Lee 
would  be  effectually  cut  off  from  escape  to  the  southward. 

Three  divisions  of  the  Army  of  the  James,  which  had 
long  been  l>'ing  in  front  of  Richmond,  were  brought 
around  to  the  left  of  the  Union  lines  facing  Petersburg. 
As  soon  as  they  were  in  position  the  5th  corps  (Warren's) 
and  the  2d  corps  (Humphreys')  were  ordered  to  the 
southwestward  till  they  had  crossed  Hatcher's  Run  ;  then 
they  faced  northward  and  advanced  till  they  could  feel  the 
Confederate  right.  On  the  extreme  left  was  Sheridan 
with  10,000  cavalry,  acting  under  orders  direct  from  Gen- 
eral Grant.  Warren's  corps  had  a  slight  encounter  with 
the  enemy,  in  which  about  400  men  were  killed  and 
wounded  on  the  Union  side  ;  the  Confederates  lost  about 
the  same  in  casualties,  with  the  addition  cf   100  prisoners. 


BA  TTI.E  OF  l-n-K  FORKS  AND  LEE  '.V  SVRKENDER.      295 

iJuriiit;  the  night  and  all  the  next  day  (30th),  rain  fell 
heavily  and  the  ground  became  unfit  for  the  execution  of 
movements  of  any  consequence.  Warren  remained  in 
the  position  he  had  taken  on  the  29th  in  front  of  the 
Confederate  intrenchments ;  Humphreys  and  Sheridan 
moved  up  a  little  so  as  to  bring  them  well  towards  the 
intrenchments,  but  did  not  endeavor  to  bring  on  a  battle. 
Sheridan  brought  his  cavalry  in  front  of  Five  Forks,  where 
he  found  the  Confederates  strongly  posted,  and  after 
surveying  the  ground  carefully  he  rode  back  to  Dinwiddic 
Court-House  where  Grant  was  waiting  to  see  him.  Grant 
ordered  Warren  to  support  Sheridan,  and  placeti  him 
under  the  latter's  command. 

The  ground  was  still  so  soaked  on  the  next  morning  that 
Grant  proposed  to  do  nothing,  but  Lee  was  not  so  inclined. 
Leaving  Longstreet  with  8,000  men  to  hold  the  works  in 
front  of  Richmond,  he  marched  the  rest  of  his  infantry  to 
the  support  of  his  right,  which  was  so  seriously  threatened 
by  Sheridan  and  the  5th  and  2d  corps.  Sheridan  had  com- 
pletely isolated  the  Confederate  cavalry,  which  had  been 
posted  on  Stony  Creek,  and  it  was  compelled  to  make  a 
long  detour  to  enable  it  to  join  the  rest  of  Lee's  forces. 

Unaware  of  Lee's  intention  to  attack,  Warren  had  sent 
skirmishers  on  his  left  to  seize  the  White  Oak  road  which 
was  beyond  the  Confederate  right,  and  ordered  Ayres  to 
send  one  brigade  to  support  the  movement.  About  half- 
past  ten  o'clock  in  the  forenoon,  Lee  suddenly  appeared 
on  the  flank  and  rear  of  Ayres'  division,  and  struck  so 
vigorously  that  the  whole  column  was  thrown  back  in 
confusion.  The  confusion  was  conveyed  to  Crawford's 
division,  which  also  broke  and  retired  in  disorder,  and  for 
a  little  while  it  looked  as  though  Lee  was  having  decid- 
edly the  best  of  it. 

Grififin's  division  stopped  the  Confederate  advance,  en- 
abling Ayres  and  Crawford  to  rally  behind  it.  This  being 
done,  Warren  advanced,  supported  by  Humphreys,  and 


296  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

the  Confederates  were  soon  in  retreat,  having  lost  heavily 
in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  The  Confederates  re- 
tired to  their  intrenchments,  which  they  defended  so 
desperately  that  several  attempts  failed  to  dislodge  them. 
While  this  was  going  on,  Sheridan  advanced  from  Dinwid- 
dle C.-H.  to  Five  Forks,  which  he  carried  while  Lee's  in- 
fantry was  engaged  with  Warren. 

But  he  was  not  allowed  to  stay  there  long,  as  Lee  turned 
from  the  fight  with  Warren  as  soon  as  the  attack  had 
failed,  and  sent  two  divisions  along  the  White  Oak  road 
to  Five  Forks,  where  they  encountered  Devin's  division 
and  Davies'  brigade  of  cavalry,  whom  they  drove  out  in 
disorder  towards  Dinwiddle  C.-H.  They  followed  in  pur- 
suit until  they  presented  their  flank  and  rear  to  Sheridan's 
main  body,  from  which  they  had  separated  Devin.  Sheri- 
dan charged  with  two  brigades,  and  fighting  continued  till 
dark,  after  which  the  Confederates  withdrew,  Lee  rightly 
concluding  that  his  two  divisions  ran  great  risk  of  being 
taken  in  flank  and  rear  by  Warren,  while  engaging 
Sheridan. 

There  was  some  alarm  at  head-quarters  when  it  was 
learned  that  the  Confederates  had  driven  Sheridan  back 
from  Five  Forks  to  Dinwiddle  C.-H.,  and  had  a  good 
chance  of  routing  him ;  Sheridan  probably  was  not  easy 
in  his  mind  until  he  found  about  midnight  that  the  enemy 
was  retiring.  Then  he  felt  perfectly  secure,  and  made  his 
plans  for  advancing  on  the  morrow. 

Sheridan,  supported  by  Ayres,  moved  at  daybreak 
April  1st,  and  was  joined  about  7  A.M.  by  Warren,  with 
his  two  other  divisions.  By  2  P.M.  he  had  fought  his 
way  to  Five  Forks,  and  driven  in  the  enemy  with  the 
aid  of  his  cavalry  alone,  leaving  Warren's  corps  in  the 
rear  waiting  for  orders.  When  the  Confederates  were 
fairly  within  their  intrenchments  at  Five  Forks,  Sheridan 
ordered  Merritt's  cavalry  division  to  turn  their  right, 
Sheridan  pressing  in  front,  and  sending  Warren's  corps  on 


BA  TTLE  OF  FIVE  FORKS  AND  LEE  'S  SURRENDER.     297 

his  (Sheridan's)  right,  along  the  White  Oak  road,  so  as  to 
come  in  on  the  enemy's  flank.  Then  by  a  left-wheel 
movement  Warren  was  to  fall  back  upon  that  flank  in  full 
force,  McKenzie,  with  the  cavalry  from  the  army  of  the 
James,  covering  Warren's  right  so  that  Lee  could  not 
draw  reinforcements  from  Richmond. 

Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  ground  Warren  could  not 
move  rapidly,  thereby  incurring  the  censure  of  Sheridan. 
It  was  4  P.M.  before  the  troops  were  in  position  for  the 
charge,  and  when  the  order  was  given  the  movement  was 
gallantly  executed.  Ayres'  division  was  broken  at  one 
time  by  the  severity  of  the  enemy's  fire,  and  there  was 
great  danger  that  it  would  be  forced  to  fall  back,  but  by  a 
prompt  order  Sheridan  sent  Grififin's  command  to  its  re- 
lief, and  the  disorder  was  only  momentary. 

The  turning  movement  was  successful,  the  Confederates 
being  taken  in  front  and  flank  almost  simultaneously. 
Their  position  was  important,  and  they  fought  desper- 
ately, but  superior  numbers  forced  them  back,  as  they 
were  only  two  divisions,  Pickett's  and  Bushrod  Johnson's. 
Ayres'  division  carried  their  flank  intrenchments  and  cap- 
tured about  one  thousand  prisoners,  while  Grififin  struck 
them  in  the  rear  and  took  as  many  more.  Meantime  Craw- 
ford pushed  ahead  to  the  Ford  road,  which  ran  northward 
from  the  Confederate  centre,  and  cut  off  their  retreat 
towards  the  rest  of  their  army.  Crawford  captured  four 
guns  and  several  hundred  prisoners,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  cavalry,  pressing  on  the  other  flank  of  the  Confederates, 
turned  their  left  and  put  all  that  remained  of  the  enemy 
to  flight.  The  cavalry  pursued  until  darkness  made  it 
impossible  to  follow  farther.  The  Union  loss  in  the  day's 
fighting  was  about  1,000,  while  that  of  the  Confederates 
amounted  to  5,000  prisoners,  not  counting  killed  and 
wounded,  which  were  estimated  equal  to  those  of  the 
Union  forces. 

Sheridan  sent  Grififin  to  move  eastward  with  two  divi- 


298  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

sions  of  infantry  to  Gravelly  Church,  and  open  communi- 
cation with  the  rest  of  Lhe  army.  Another  division  went 
to  support  McKenzie's  cavalry,  which  had  advanced  on 
the  Ford  road  up  to  Hatcher's  Run.  At  10  P.M.  a  gen- 
eral cannonade  was  begun  along  the  whole  line  by  order 
of  General  Grant,  and  continued  through  the  night. 

At  daybreak  on  the  2d  April  there  was  a  general  as- 
sault along  the  Confederate  line  by  the  2d,  6th,  9th,  24th, 
and  25th  corps.  The  fire  of  the  enemy  was  destructive 
and  retarded  the  advance  at  several  points,  but  could  not 
stop  it.  The  6th  corps  carried  the  works  in  its  front,  and 
one  division  (Seymour's),  broke  through  to  the  South-Side 
railway  and  began  to  tear  it  up.  The  24th  corps  was  also 
successful,  and  so  were  the  2d  and  9th.  The  9th  had 
probably  the  hardest  fighting  of  the  day,  in  which  it  cap- 
tured Fort  Mahone,  on  the  Jerusalem  plank  road  ;  the 
enemy  tried  to  retake  it,  and  was  nearly  successful,  when 
the  6th  corps  came  to  the  aid  of  the  9th,  and  the  dearly 
obtained  position  was  saved.  A  Confederate  brigade 
(Harris'),  which  defended  one  of  the  forts,  was  250  strong  at 
the  beginning  of  the  battle,  and  lost  220  men  before  it 
was  over. 

Along  nearly  the  whole  line  the  outer  defences  were 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  assailants,  and  though  Lee 
still  held  the  city  of  Petersburg  he  saw  that  his  position 
was  no  longer  tenable.  According!}-,  at  10.30  A.M.  he 
telegraphed  as  follows  to  President   Davis : 

My  lines  are  broken  in  three  places.  Richmond  must  be 
evacuated  this  evening. 

Mr.  Davis  was  in  church  when  this  dispatch  was  hand- 
ed to  him.  He  rose  and  walked  out  quietly,  and  the  ser- 
vice went  on  as  though  nothing  had  happened.  But 
there  was  a  deathly  silence  over  the  whole  congregation, 
and  every  one  felt  that  something  awful  was  about  to 
happen.     After  the   services  were    over  the   news  spread 


BA  TTLE  OF  FIVE  FOA'KS  A  AW  LEE  'S  SURRENDER.     299 

rapidly,  and  before  noon  everybody  who  cared  to  know 
was  aware  that  Richmond  was  about  to  be  occupied  by 
the  enemy. 

There  was  great  excitement  in  the  city  all  through  the 
afternoon,  many  persons  desiring  to  go  with  the  Confed- 
erate government  and  follow  its  fortunes.  Wagons  and 
carriages  rose  to  an  enormous  price,  as  much  as  $100  in 
gold  or  Union  currency  being  offered  for  a  conveyance 
for  a  single  day.  The  streets  were  filled  with  a  mass  of 
fugitives  carrying  trunks,  boxes,  and  all  sorts  of  recep- 
tacles. As  a  precautionary  measure  the  City  Council 
ordered  the  destruction  of  all  intoxicating  liquors  in 
Richmond,  and  hundreds  of  barrels  were  rolled  out  and 
their  contents  poured  into  the  gutters.  General  Ewing 
ordered  the  burning  of  the  four  principal  tobacco  ware- 
houses in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  Mayor  and  Council, 
who  feared  that  the  whole  business  part  of  the  city  would 
be  destroyed.  As  was  expected,  the  fire  caused  great  de- 
struction, and  the  first  work  of  the  Union  troops  that 
entered  Richmond  was  to  extinguish  the  flames.  The 
Confederate  gun-boats  were  blown  up  and  burned,  and  all 
the  steamers  at  the  dock  were  burned  with  the  exception 
of  a  single  flag-of-truce  boat. 

The  government  wagons  removed  as  much  as  possible 
from  the  commissary  depot,  and  then  the  place  was 
thrown  open  to  the  public  to  help  themselves.  Bacon, 
flour,  etc.,  by  the  ton  were  thus  distributed  to  many  who 
had  long  stood  in  sore  need  of  it.  As  usually  happens  in 
such  cases,  the  strong  overpowered  the  weak,  and  it  is 
said  that  several  persons  were  trampled  to  death  in  the 
rush  that  followed  the  opening  of  the  doors. 

During  the  night  of  the  2d  the  evacuation  went  on,  and 
about  3  A.M.  a  negro  came  from  Richmond  into  the 
Union  lines  and  announced  that  the  Confederates  had 
gone.  General  Weitzel  rode  in  about  6  A.M.  Threading 
his    way    carefully    ovei    the   ground,  wliich    was    thickly 


300  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

planted  with  torpedoes,  and  accompanied  by  his  staff,  he 
reached  the  centre  of  the  city  in  advance  of  his  troops, 
and  hoisted  the  American  flag  over  the  capitol.  The 
Confederate  works  were  found  to  be  of  great  strength, 
and  those  who  saw  them  did  not  wonder  that  the  Union 
army  had  so  long  been  kept  at  bay,  when  they  remem- 
bered that  the  defences  were  manned  by  Lee's  tried  and 
trusty  veterans. 

The  evacuation  of  Petersburg  was  simultaneous  with 
that  of  Richmond,  and  was  conducted  so  quietly  that  the 
Union  pickets,  only  a  few  yards  away,  were  unaware  of  it 
until  daylight  showed  that  the  Confederates  had  gone. 
The  Confederates  had  a  start  of  several  miles,  marching 
out  along  the  Danville  Railway,  and  the  direct  road  to 
Lynchburg,  by  which  Lee  still  hoped  to  efTect  a  junction 
with  Johnston,  and  again  take  the  offensive  either  against 
Grant  or  the  Army  of  the  Mississippi.  Unfortunately 
for  him,  he  was  compelled  to  take  the  north  side  of  the 
Appomattox,  as  the  forces  of  Grant  were  mainly  on  the 
south  side  of  that  river,  and  completely  barred  his  retreat 
in  that  direction. 

With  his  army  reduced  to  less  than  35,000  men,  Lee 
pushed  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  Amelia  C.-H.,  where  he 
had  ordered  supplies  sent  from  Danville.  By  a  mistake 
in  the  execution  of  the  order,  the  train  laden  with  these 
supplies  had  been  sent  to  Richmond,  and  consequently 
the  weary  and  famished  soldiers  were  compelled  to  forage 
on  the  already  exhausted  country  and  find  what  food  they 
could.  Here  he  rested  on  the  4th  and  5th  April  and  then 
prepared  to  advance,  still  hoping  to  reach  Lynchburg 
before  the  enemy  could  interfere  with  him.  But  his  plans 
were  rudely  frustrated. 

By  following  directly  after  Lee  and  engaging  him  in 
battle.  Grant  would  still  leave  the  Confederate  general  an 
open  way  to  Lynchburg  in  case  of  defeat.  His  object 
was  not  to  defeat,  but  to  capture  Lee  with  his  whole  army. 


1!A  TTLE  OF  FIVE  FORKS  AND  LEE  'S  SURRENDER.      30I 

and  with  this  object  in  view  he  sent  Sheridan  with  the 
cavalry  and  the  5th  corps  to  move  as  rapidly  as  possible 
by  roads  considerably  south  of  the  one  through  Amelia 
C.-H.,  and  thus  get  in  front  of  Lee  and  intersect  his 
movements.  Sheridan  executed  the  order  with  the  dash 
for  which  he  was  famous  ;  he  struck  the  line  of  the 
Richmond  and  Danville  Railway  at  Jetersville,  where  he 
planted  himself,  prepared  to  resist  the  whole  of  Lee's 
forces  until  Grant  and  Meade  could  come  up  and  deliver 
a  crushing  blow  in  the  rear.  Late  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
5th,  Meade  arrived  with  the  2d  and  6th  corps,  while  Lee 
was  still  at  Amelia  C.-H.,  which  he  left  on  the  night  of 
the  5th. 

Lee  marched  around  the  position  of  Meade  and  Sheri- 
dan at  Jetersville,  aiming  for  Farmville,  where  he  hoped 
to  recross  the  Appomattox  and  escape.  But  General 
Davies,  with  his  cavalry  brigade,  had  advanced  to  the  road 
and  struck  Lee's  train  in  advance  of  his  infantry,  destroy- 
ing 180  wagons  and  capturing  5  guns  and  many  prisoners. 
Two  other  cavalry  brigades  came  to  the  relief  of  Davies, 
who  was  hard  pressed  by  the  enemy.  They  fell  back  to 
Jetersville,  whence  they  continued  the  pursuit  the  next 
day  (6th),  striking  the  enemy's  line  at  Sailor's  Creek, 
where  a  brilliant  engagement  was  fought  ;  400  wagons 
were  destroyed,  and  16  guns  and  a  considerable  number 
of  prisoners  were  taken.  The  Confederate  line  was  pierced ; 
General  Ewell's  division,  6,000  strong,  being  cut  off  from 
the  rest  and  compelled  to  surrender,  though  it  fought  as 
long  as  there  was  any  chance  of  escape. 

On  the  evening  of  the  6th,  Lee  crossed  the  Appomattox 
at  Farmville,  his  rear  being  so  closely  pressed  that  he  was 
unable  to  destroy  the  bridge  of  the  wagon  road,  though 
he  succeeded  in  burning  the  railway  bridge.  The  rear- 
guard retired  just  as  General  Barlow's  division  arrived,  and 
so  rapid  was  the  retreat  that  the  Confederates  abandoned 
18   guns  and   many  wagons.     The    pursuit  was   kept  up 


302  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

through  the  7th  and  8th  with  no  engagement  of  conse. 
quence.  The  2d  and  6th  corps  under  Meade  followed 
directly  in  the  trail  of  Lee  and  his  fugitive  companions, 
while  Sheridan's  cavalry  pushed  on  to  head  off  Lee, 
followed  by  Ord's  and  Griffin's  infantry  divisions,  who 
could  not,  of  course,  keep  pace  with  the  horses.  As  it 
was  now  impossible  for  Lee  to  make  for  Danville,  Sheridan 
took  a  position  to  head  him  off  from  Lynchburg,  which 
was  now  his  only  place  of  refuge.  Sheridan  learned  that 
four  trains  laden  with  supplies  for  Lee's  starving  soldiers 
had  been  sent  from  Lynchburg  and  were  at  Prospect 
Station,  five  miles  from  Appomattox  C.-H.  Making  a 
-orred  march  of  twenty-eight  miles,  he  captured  these 
■:rains,  and  then  sent  Custer's  division  forward,  which 
soon  found  itself  in  front  of  Lee's  advance. 

Custer  fought  until  darkness  put  an  end  to  the  combat, 
driving  the  advance  back  on  the  main  body  of  the  army, 
and  capturing  25  guns,  a  hospital  train,  and  a  large  number 
of  wagons,  and  making  many  prisoners.  Sheridan  brought 
up  the  rest  of  the  cavalry,  and  planted  it  right  in  front 
of  Lee's  army,  and  sent  couriers  to  Grant,  Griffin,  and  Ord, 
saying  that  the  capture  of  Lee's  whole  army  was  now 
certain.  Griffin  and  Ord  with  their  corps  and  one  division 
of  the  25th  corps  made  a  forced  march  during  the  night 
and  reached  Appomattox  at  daylight  on  the  9th. 

And  now  came  one  of  the  most  dramatic  incidents  of 
the  war — an  incident  which  dwarfs  to  littleness  the  most 
magnificent  spectacle  ever  presented  on  the  theatrical 
stage. 

On  the  morning  of  that  memorable  9th  of  April,  Lee's 
army  of  ragged,  starving,  wearied  soldiers,  was  drawn  up 
in  battle  array  in  front  of  Sheridan's  cavalry.  Their  ranks 
had  been  terribly  reduced  by  the  events  of  the  past  ten 
days,  and  out  of  the  50,000  that  held  the  trenches  of 
Petersburg  and  Richmond  on  the  28th  March,  little  more 
than  10,000  remained  actually  effective   for  battle.     But 


304  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

though  few  in  number,  worn,  weary,  and  suffering  from  the 
pangs  of  hunger,  they  were  ready  to  meet  their  adversaries 
and  prepared  without  flinching  to  charge  upon  Sheridan's 
troopers.  It  was  the  last  charge  of  the  Army  of  Northern 
Virginia. 

By  Sheridan's  order  the  cavalry  in  line  of  battle  dis- 
mounted and  gave  way  gradually,  though  all  the  while 
showing  a  steady  front,  in  order  to  give  time  for  the 
wearied  infantry  of  Ord's  and  Grififin's  corps  to  take  up 
their  position.  When  this  had  been  accomplished  the  cav- 
alry remounted  and  moved  rapidly  to  the  right,  so  as  to 
come  in  upon  the  Confederate  left  for  a  flanking  charge. 
As  the  cavalry  thus  drew  away  from  its  former  position, 
the  Confederate  commander  saw  to  his  astonishment  the 
long  and  solid  lines  of  the  Union  infantry,  lines  of  blue 
tipped  with  the  steel  of  flashing  bayonets,  and  stippled  at 
intervals  with  the  muzzles  of  cannon,  with  the  artillery- 
men in  their  places  ready  for  their  death-dealing  work. 

The  hopelessness  of  the  charge  was  apparent  to  every 
Confederate  officer  who  saw  that  mass  of  infantry  waiting 
for  the  assault.  The  advance  was  stopped  and  in  a  few 
minutes  a  white  flag  was  displayed  in  front  of  General 
Custer,  who  was  leading  Sheridan's  cavalry  column,  and 
preparing  for  a  charge  upon  the  Confederate  left.  With 
the  white  flag  came  the  information  that  the  Confederates 
were  ready  to  surrender.  General  Sheridan  immediately 
rode  over  towards  the  Confederate  lines,  where  he  was 
met  by  General  Gordon,  who  asked  that  hostilities  be 
suspended.  He  added  that  Generals  Grant  and  Lee  were 
already  negotiating  for  a  capitulation,  and  said  he  had  no 
doubt  that  the  terms  would  be  speedily  arranged. 

The  capitulation  had  been  discussed  among  the  Con- 
federate oflficers  on  the  night  of  the  6th  around  a  camp- 
fire.  General  Lee  was  not  present,  but  the  opinion  of  his 
officers  was  conveyed  to  him  by  General  Pendleton.  The 
decision  was  unanimous  that  a  surrender  was  inevitable,  as 


BA  TTLE  OF  FIVE  FORKS  AND  LEE  'S  SURRENDER.      305 

the  army  had  been  terribly  reduced  in  numbers,  and  the 
men  who  remained  were  so  weakened  by  famine  that  large 
numbers  of  them  had  thrown  away  their  guns,  being  too 
feeble  to  carry  them.  Even  if  they  could  escape  from 
their  pursuers  they  could  only  do  so  by  abandoning  all 
theii  artillery  and  heavy  munitions  and  they  had  already 
lost  a  large  part  of  their  wagon  train. 

On  the  7th  General  Grant  took  the  initiative  and  thus 
saved  General  Lee  the  mortification  of  proposing  a  sur- 
render. He  wrote  a  letter  couched  in  the  following  lan- 
guage : 

April  7,   1S65. 

General  : — The  result  of  the  last  week  must  convince  you 
of  the  hopelessness  of  further  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  Army 
of  Northern  Virginia  in  this  struggle.  I  feel  that  it  is  so  ;  and 
regard  it  as  my  duty  to  shift  from  myself  the  responsibility  of 
any  further  effusion  of  blood  by  asking  of  you  the  surrender  of 
that  portion  of  the  Confederate  States  army  known  as  the 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia. 

U.  S.  Grant,  Lt. -General. 

Gen.  R.  E.  Lee. 

General  Lee  received  the  letter  late  in  the  afternoon, 
and  replied  briefly,  asking  the  terms  of  surrender,  though 
not  admitting  the  hopelessness  of  the  further  struggle. 
Grant  replied  on  the  8th  to  the  effect  that  the  onl}-  terms 
he  could  accept  were  unconditional  surrender,  the  men 
and  officers  surrendered  being  disqualified  from  taking  up 
arms  until  properly  exchanged,  Lee  responded  on  the 
same  evening,  saying  he  did  not  think  the  emergency  had 
arisen  for  the  surrender  of  the  army,  that  he  did  not  in- 
tend to  propose  it,  but  only  wished  to  know  the  terms 
that  would  be  demanded.  He  declined  meeting  General 
Grant  for  the  purpose  of  negotiating  a  surrender,  but  ex- 
pressed a  wish  to  meet  him  with  a  view  to  the  restoration 
of  peace. 

On  the  morning  of  tiie  9th  General  Grant  wrote  again 


306  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO.       . 

to  General  Lee  to  the  effect  that  he  had  no  authority  to 
treat  for  peace  and  the  proposed  meeting  could  therefore 
do  no  good.  He  added  that  the  terms  on  which  peace 
could  be  obtained  were  well  understood,  that  the  South 
must  lay  down  its  arms,  and  by  so  doing  would  save  thou- 
sands of  human  lives  and  hundreds  of  millions  of  property 
not  yet  destroyed. 

Immediately  after  the  stoppage  of  the  last  charge  of 
the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  in  the  manner  previously 
described,  General  Grant  rode  to  Sheridan's  head-quarters, 
and  while  on  his  way  there  received  a  note  from  General 
Lee,  asking  for  an  interview  with  reference  to  the  surrender 
of  the  army.  Hostilities  had  been  suspended,  and  the  in- 
terview of  the  two  commanders  took  place  in  half  an  hour 
after  the  receipt  of  the  note.  It  was  held  at  the  house  of 
Mr.  W.  McLean,  near  the  court-house  of  Appomattox, 
and  was  over  in  a  short  time,  as  the  business  was  easily 
arranged.  Officers  and  men  were  paroled  not  to  take  up 
arms  again  until  properly  exchanged,  all  public  property, 
arms,  and  artillery  to  be  parked  and  stacked,  and  turned 
over  to  the  officers  appointed  to  receive  them.  The  ofifi- 
cers  were  allowed  to  retain  their  side  arms,  horses,  and  per- 
sonal baggage,  and  though  not  mentioned  in  the  oflficial 
documents,  General  Grant  afterwards  permitted  the  caval- 
xy  soldiers  to  retain  their  horses,  remarking  as  a  reason  for 
his  leniency,  that  they  would  "  be  useful  in  putting  in  a 
crop."  Twenty-seven  thousand  men  were  said  to  have 
been  included  in  Lee's  capitulation  but  not  more  than 
10,000  were  actually  in  line  of  battle  with  their  arms  on 
the  morning  of  the  9th  April. 

The  victory  of  Five  Forks  was  the  prelude  to  the  sur- 
render at  Appomattox,  and  that  surrender  was  practically 
the  end  of  the  war.  One  after  another  the  remaining  arm.ies 
of  the  Confederates  submitted  to  the  fortune  of  war  and 
laid  down  their  arms,  and  in  every  instance  the  terms  ac- 
corded were  almost  identical  with  those  arranged  between 


BATTLE   OF  FIVE  FORKS  AND  LEE'S  SURRENDER.    307 

Grant  and  Lee.  No  great  battle  was  fought  after  Lee's 
surrender,  and  of  the  few  collisions  that  occurred  before 
the  wings  of  peace  were  outstretched  over  the  whole 
country,  there  were  none  of  consequence.  The  last  battle 
of  the  war  was  fought  in  Texas,  May  13th,  resulting  in  a 
loss  of  about  thirty  killed  and  wounded  on  the  Union 
side,  some  forty  or  fifty  taken  prisoners,  and  four  or  five 
wounded  on  the  Confederate  side. 

The  number  of  men  paroled  in  the  Confederate  armies, 
at  the  close  of  the  war,  was  174,223,  and  at  the  same  time 
98,802  Confederate  prisoners  of  war  were  held  in  Northern 
prisons  or  depots.  The  aggregate  Union  force  on  the  mus- 
ter rolls  of  the  Union  armies  on  March  I,  1865,  was 965,591, 
and  on  the  first  of  May  the  number  exceeded  1,000,000. 
On  that  date  all  enlistments  were  suspended,  and  shortly 
afterwards  the  work  of  disbanding  the  army  began.  By 
the  end  of  November  more  than  800,000  men  had  been 
mustered  out  of  the  service  and  returned  to  the  occupa- 
tions of  civil  life.  The  sudden  termination  of  the  war  was 
unexpected  by  the  great  mass  of  the  public  on  both  sides, 
though  to  the  thoughtful  leaders,  who  knew  the  conditions 
against  which  they  were  contending,  the  result  was  ap- 
parent months  and  months  before. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

BATTLE    OF    KOENIGGRATZ    (SADOWA) — 1 866. 

Space  will  not  here  permit  the  discussion  of  the  Schles' 
wig-Holstein  difficulties  which  led  to  the  war  between 
Prussia  and  Austria  in  1866,  and  the  victory  of  Prussia  at 
Sadowa.  Briefly  we  may  say  that  since  the  time  of 
Charlemagne,  Schleswig  was  a  disputed  possession  be- 
tween the  Germans  and  the  Danes,  while  Holstein  has 
been  practically  in  the  same  category.  Reams  of  paper 
by  the  hundred  have  been  covered  with  the  diplomatic 
correspondence  growing  out  of  the  various  claims  to  these 
disputed  provinces,  and  on  several  occasions  the  contend- 
ing parties  have  resorted  to  the  arbitrament  of  war.  The 
war  of  1863-4,  between  Denmark  and  Prussia,  resulted  in 
the  defeat  of  the  former.  It  was  followed  by  the  peace  of 
Vienna,  in  which  the  king  of  Denmark  resigned  the 
duchies  to  Prussia  and  Austria,  and  agreed  to  a  rectifica- 
tion of  his  frontier.  He  was  also  to  pay  an  indemnity 
for  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

Hardly  was  the  ink  dry  on  the  treaty  of  peace  before 
Prussia  and  Austria  began  to  quarrel  over  the  possession 
of  the  duchies;  the  quarrel  was  partially  stifled  by  the 
convention  of  Gastein  (August  14,  1865),  in  which  it  was 
agreed  that  Austria  should  have  the  temporary  govern- 
ment of  Holstein,  and  Prussia  that  of  Schleswig.  Prus- 
sia adhered  to  the  terms  of  the  convention  just  long 
enough  to  secure  from  Napoleon  HI.  a  guaranty  of  the 
neutrality  of  France  in  case  of  a  war  between  Prussia  and 

308 


BA  TTLE   OF  KOENIGGRA  TZ.  309 

Austria,  and  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Italy,  who  bore  any 
thing  but  good-will  to  the  Austrian  government. 

On  the  iith  March,  1866,  Prussia  published  a  decree 
asserting  her  jurisdiction  over  Holstcin,  and  on  the  24th 
of  the  same  month  she  issued  a  circular  calling  upon  the 
German  states  to  declare  whether  they  would  support 
Austria  or  Prussia  in  case  of  war.  Both  countries  pre- 
pared for  war.  In  April  and  May,  Austria  called  on 
Prussia  to  disarm,  and  the  latter  replied  with  a  counter 
demand.  There  was  much  incriminatory  correspondence 
between  Bismarck  and  Mensdorff  (the  Prussian  and  Aus- 
trian ministers)  ;  the  Federal  Diet  met  at  Frankfort  ;  the 
Prussians  occupied  Holstein  and  the  Austrians  retired ; 
Prussia,  on  the  14th  June,  announced  the  confederation 
dissolved,  and  on  the  next  day  she  declared  war  against 
Hanover  and  Saxony, 

On  the  i8th  June  Prussia  declared  war  against  Austria. 
Nearly  all  the  northern  states  of  Germany  pronounced  in 
favor  of  Prussia,  while  the  southern  ones  sided  with  Aus- 
tria. The  two  great  armies  advanced  to  meet  each  other, 
the  Austrian  northern  army,  under  command  of  Field 
Marshall  Benedek,  entering  Silesia,  where  it  was  joined  by 
the  Saxons.  At  the  same  time  the  southern  army  of 
Austria,  commanded  by  Archduke  Albrecht,  faced  the 
Italians.  The  Prussian  army  moved  with  astonishing  ce- 
lerity, and  thus  was  able  to  fight  the  great  battle  of  the 
campaign  on  Austrian  soil.  Prince  Frederick  Charles 
with  the  First  Army  and  the  Army  of  the  Elbe,  the  latter 
commanded  by  General  Herwarth  von  Bittenfeld,  en- 
tered Bohemia  on  the  23d  of  June;  he  was  victorious  in 
severe  engagements  at  Liebenau,  Turnau,  and  Podall,  on 
the  26th,  Hoehnewasser  on  the  27th,  Munchengratz  on 
the  28th,  and  Gitschin  on  the  29th  June. 

The  Crown  Prince  with  the  Second  Army  entered  Bo- 
hemia on  the  22d  June,  was  repulsed  at  Trautenau  the 
27th,  victorious  at  Saar  and  Trautenau  the  28th,  and  at 


3IO  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Koningenhof  on  the  29th.  On  the  30th  communication 
was  opened  between  the  two  armies  ;  the  king  assumed 
command  on  the  ist  July,  and  movements  were  im- 
mediately made  to  deliver  a  crushing  blow  to  the  Aus- 
trian army.  By  the  success  of  the  blow  the  Austrians 
would  be  crushed  between  the  armies  of  Prince  Frederick 
Charles  and  the  Crown  Prince. 

Prince  Frederick  Charles,  commanding  the  First  Army, 
halted  on  Monday,  July  2d,  at  Kommenitz,  to  give  time 
for  the  Crown  Prince  to  advance  to  Miletin,  which  is 
about  five  miles  to  the  eastward  of  Kommenitz,  and  also 
to  learn  exactly  what  movements  the  Austrians  were 
making.  Reconnoitring  parties  were  sent  out,  and  as 
soon  as  he  had  received  the  reports  of  their  commanding 
ofificers.  Prince  Frederick  Charles  decided  to  attack  the 
Austrians.  He  ordered  an  immediate  advance  of  his 
own  army  beyond  Horwitz,  and  wrote  to  the  Crown 
Prince  an  urgent  request  to  advance  in  the  morning  from 
Miletin  and  attack  the  Austrian  right  flank  at  the  same 
time  that  the  First  Army  attacked  the  Austrians  in 
front.  By  ten  o'clock  at  night  the  troops  were  in  full 
movement. 

The  general  stafT  did  not  leave  Kommenitz  until  an  hour 
past  midnight.  The  night  was  cloudy,  but  not  dark,  as 
the  clouds  were  thin  and  the  moon  occasionally  came  out 
distinctly.  The  whole  country  was  dotted  with  the  re- 
mains of  the  bivouac  fires  where  the  First  Army  had  been 
encamped.  An  eye-witness  of  the  scene  says  these  fires 
looked  like  large  will-of-the-wisps,  as  their  flames  flickered 
in  the  wind,  and  they  stretched  out  for  many  a  mile,  as 
the  First  Army  alone  contained  150,000  soldiers,  and 
necessarily  the  camp  of  so  large  a  force  covered  a  very 
wide  area.  The  clouds  thickened  during  the  night,  and 
about  daylight  there  came  on  a  drizzling  rain,  which  con- 
tinued all  the  forenoon  and  for  some  hours  after  mid-day. 
To  add  to  the  discomfort  of  the  troops,  the  wind  steadily 


312  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

increased  and  considerably  affected  the  soldiers,  who  had 
had  little  sleep  and  scanty  food  for  the  past  two  days. 

At  daylight,  the  various  corps  and  divisions  of  the  First 
Army  had  formed  their  line  for  attacking  the  Austrians. 
The  main  body  of  the  army  was  at  Milowitz,  which  is  a 
small  village  on  the  road  from  Koeniggratz  to  Horwitz. 
General  Franseky,  commanding  the  7th  division  was  at 
Cesekwitz,  holding  the  left,  while  the  4th  and  5th  divi- 
sions were  at  Pristan  and  Psauch,  these  divisions  forming 
the  right  of  the  line.  General  Herewarth  von  Bittenfeld 
with  the  8th  and  part  of  the  7th  corps  held  the  extreme 
right  about  ten  miles  from  Milowitz.  At  four  o'clock  in 
the  morning  the  advance  began,  and  the  army  marched 
slowly  up  the  first  declivity  between  Milowitz  and 
Dub,  five  miles  nearer  Kommenitz.  The  ground  being 
soaked  by  rain,  which  had  been  falling  for  several  hours, 
was  difficult  for  the  advancing  army.  The  skirmishers  man- 
aged to  move  ahead  without  much  trouble,  but  the  bat- 
talions advancing  in  closer  order  struggled  more  slowly 
along,  while  the  wheels  of  the  gun  carriages  sank  heavily 
into  the  sticky  mud,  and  the  horses  of  the  artillery  were 
frequentl}^  brought  to  a  halt. 

By  six  o'clock  the  whole  army  was  quite  near  Dub, 
where  it  halted  for  a  time  somewhat  below  the  summit 
of  the  slope,  as  the  ridge  on  which  the  village  is  built  had 
completely  masked  all  the  movements  of  the  troops.  The 
Austrians  were  known  to  be  on  the  other  side  of  the  ridge, 
and  they  were  probably  unaware  that  any  Prussians  were 
in  the  vicinity  other  than  the  advanced  pickets.  The 
Prussian  cavalry  videttes  had  been  sent  forward  the  pre- 
vious evening  and  held  the  crest  of  the  ridge,  so  that  the 
Austrians  were  unable  to  come  up  and  ascertain  what  was 
going  on  behind  this  thin  screen  of  mounted  soldiers. 
After  a  halt  of  nearly  an  hour  to  enable  the  columns  to 
close  up,  Prince  Frederick  Charles  ordered  the  advance  of 
the  horse  artillery  and  cavalr}'.     They  moved  forward  as 


BATTLE   OF  KOENIGGRATZ.  313 

fast  as  the  condition  of  the  ground  would  permit,  keeping 
their  lines  in  splendid  formation,  when  all  the  circum- 
stances are  considered.  The  Uhlans  in  advance  had  a 
dishevelled  and  bedraggled  appearance,  as  the  flags  on 
their  lances  were  soaked  with  rain  and  either  clung 
closely  to  the  staves  or  flapped  sluggishly  against  them. 
When  the  bottom  of  the  hill  was  reached,  the  trumpets 
sounded,  the  cavalry  and  horse  artillery  pushed  toward 
the  river  Bistritz,  and  then  the  movement  became  fully 
apparent  to  the  Austrians.  Their  guns  opened  quickl}' 
upon  the  advancing  Prussians  from  a  battery  stationed 
in  a  field  near  the  village  of  Dub,  where  the  main  highway 
crossed  the  Bistritz.  The  great  battle  which  was  to  de- 
cide the  relations  between  Austria  and  Prussia  was  now 
fully  begun. 

The  battle  opened  at  about  half-past  seven  o'clock  in  the 
morning.  The  Prussian  horse  artillery  replied  promptly 
to  the  Austrian  cannon,  but  neither  side  fired  rapidly,  and 
for  fully  thirty  minutes  the  encounter  consisted  mainly  of 
occasional  shots.  The  king  of  Prussia  reached  the  field  a 
little  before  eight  o'clock,  and  soon  after  his  arrival  the 
horse  artillery  was  strengthened  by  the  advance  of  other 
batteries,  and  orders  were  given  for  a  rapid  fire  to  be 
opened  upon  the  Austrians.  A  rain  of  shot  and  shell  was 
poured  in  upon  them.  Immediately  after  the  beginning 
of  this  rapid  fire  on  the  part  of  the  Prussians,  the  Austri- 
an batteries  came  out  in  great  force  from  all  directions 
and  returned  the  fire  quite  as  vigorously  as  it  had  begun. 
The  Austrian  concentration  of  artillery  was  admirable,  as 
the  batteries  appeared  quickly  from  every  village  and 
every  road- all  along  the  whole  front  of  the  Austrian  line, 
which  extended  from  Mockrowens  on  the  right  to  Bcna- 
tek  on  the  left.  The  flashes  of  fire  from  the  mouths  of 
the  cannon  formed  a  continuous  line,  and  the  guns  were 
evidently  aimed  with  great  precision  ;  the  shot  and  shell 
were  dropped  among  the  Prussian  guns,  occasionally  dis- 


314  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO.       ■ 

mounting  a  piece  of  artillery,  blowing  up  a  caisson,  kill- 
ing men  and  horses,  and  certain  to  have  created  great 
confusion  in  any  but  a  thoroughly  disciplined  army.  The 
Austrian  fire  was  not  alone  directed  to  the  Prussian  artil- 
lery, as  their  shells  were  thrown  up  the  slope  in  front  of 
them,  towards  Dub,  and  one  shell  fell  into  a  squadron  of 
Uhlans  who  were  close  at  the  king's  side.  It  buried  it- 
self in  the  ground,  and  then  threw  up  clumps  of  mud 
some  twenty  feet  in  the  air,  and  its  explosion  killed  some 
two  or  three  men. 

As  soon  as  the  cannonading  became  furious,  the  guns 
of  the  Prussian  7th  division  opened  upon  the  village 
of  Benatek,  which  formed  the  Austrian  right.  For  some 
time  an  artillery  duel  took  place  at  this  point,  shot  being 
given  for  shot,  and  neither  side  advancing  or  retreating. 
The  same  was  the  state  of  affairs  in  the  centre  ;  each  side 
pushed  many  batteries  into  position  and  kept  up  a  severe 
cannonading.  The  artillery  fire  was  as  even  as  it  was  pos- 
sible to  make  it.  The  number  of  guns  appeared  almost 
precisely  the  same,  and  shot  seemed  to  be  given  for  shot, 
although  the  fire  was  so  rapid  that  the  reports  followed  as 
quickly  together  as  in  file  firing  with  musketry.  Con- 
siderable havoc  was  created  on  both  sides,  ofificers  and 
men  fell  very  rapidly,  and  a  great  many  horses  were  killed 
or  disabled.  The  Prussians  pushed  forward  their  batteries 
as  fast  as  they  could  be  brought  up  from  the  rear,  and 
after  a  time  their  fire  was  considerably  stronger  than  that 
of  the  Austrians. 

Finally  the  Austrian  batteries  between  Dohelnitz  and 
Dohalicha  were  withdrawn  a  short  distance  up  the  slope, 
but  the  guns  at  Mockrowens  remained  in  position,  and  at 
no  point  had  the  Prussians  thus  far  been  able  to  cross  the 
Bistritz.  As  soon  as  the  Austrians  retired  up  the  hill,  as 
just  before  mentioned,  the  Prussian  batteries  turned  their 
fire  upon  Miletin,  with  the  result  that  by  ten  o'clock  the 
battery  at  that  village  was  also  compelled  to  retire.     Dur- 


BATTLE   OF  KOENIGGRATZ.  315 

ing  the  progress  of  this  cannonading  some  of  the  infantry 
had  been  moved  forward  towards  the  river,  and  while 
waiting  to  be  brought  into  action  they  sheltered  them- 
selves under  all  convenient  undulations  of  the  ground. 
The  8th  division  advanced  on  the  left  side  of  the  road, 
and,  shielded  by  the  rising  ground,  put  its  columns  in  posi- 
tion for  an  attack  upon  the  village  of  Sadowa,  while  the 
third  and  fourth  divisions  on  the  other  side  of  the  road 
were  put  in  readiness  for  storming  Dohelnitz  and  Mock- 
rowens. 

Before  their  preparations  were  completed,  it  was  ob- 
served that  the  village  of  Bistritz  on  the  Austrian  right 
had  taken  fire.  The  7th  division  was  ordered  to  take 
advantage  of  this  circumstance  and  secure  possession  of 
the  village,  but  the  Austrians  had  not  been  driven  out  by 
the  flames  of  the  burning  buildings,  and  made  a  stubborn 
resistance.  Up  to  this  time  the  fighting  had  been 
by  the  artillery  only,  but  now  it  was  hand  to  hand  on  the 
part  of  the  infantry.  The  attack  was  led  by  the  27th 
regiment,  who  first  forced  their  way  into  the  orchards 
surrounding  the  village.  The  Austrians  were  on  the 
other  side  of  the  burning  buildings,  and  volley  after  vol- 
ley was  poured  through  the  flames  upon  the  assailants. 
While  the  27th  regiment  engaged  the  Austrians  in 
front,  other  regiments  managed  to  flank  the  village, 
and  by  taking  the  Austrians  in  the  rear,  compelled  them 
to  retire  with  the  loss  of  many  of  their  number,  who  re- 
mained prisoners  in  Prussian  hands. 

It  was  about  ten  o'clock  when  the  attack  on  Dohelnitz 
and  Mockrowens  was  ordered.  There  was  little  opposi- 
tion to  the  advancing  columns  until  they  reached  the 
bank  of  the  Bistritz  ;  but  from  that  point  every  inch  of 
ground  was  stubbornly  contended  for.  The  Austrian  in- 
fantry were  in  strong  force  at  the  approaches  to  the  vil- 
lages, and  they  poured  a  destructive  fire  upon  the 
Prussians  as  they  advanced.     The  latter  were    at   great 


3l6  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

disadvantage,  as  the  road  was  narrow  and  the  Austrians 
were  shielded  by  the  villages  and  detached  houses,  so 
that  they  were  able  to  inflict  considerable  damage  on  the 
Prussians  while  losing  comparatively  little  themselves. 
The  Prussian  rifles  were  fired  more  rapidly  than  were 
those  of  the  Austrians,  but  the  latter  were  so  shielded  by 
the  houses,  trees,  and  smoke  that  the  Prussians  were 
rarely  able  to  take  accurate  aim.  A  great  deal  of  blind 
firing  was  done  by  the  Austrians.  They  judged  by  the 
sound  the  positions  of  the  attacking  columns,  and  simply 
fired  in  the  direction  whence  the  sounds  came.  The 
cloud  of  smoke  in  the  drizzly  rain  lay  heavily  on  the 
ground,  and  for  a  considerable  time  it  was  impossible  to 
see  any  thing  through  it,  but,  though  slowly,  the  Prussians 
advanced  steadily,  losing  men  at  every  step,  and  in  some 
places  literally  leaving  the  ground  covered  with  their  dead 
and  wounded. 

The  fighting  among  the  villages  continued  for  nearly 
an  hour  ;  then  the  Prussians  having  reinforced  their  col- 
umns, made  a  dash  upon  the  Austrian  infantry,  whom 
they  drove  back,  but  not  far,  the  Austrians  simply  retir- 
ing a  short  distance  up  the  slope  until  they  were  in  line 
with  their  own  batteries.  The  wood  above  Sadowa  was 
full  of  Austrian  infantry,  while  the  wood  between  Sadowa 
and  Benatek  was  equally  well  held,  and  it  seemed  next  to 
impossible  for  the  Prussians  to  be  able  to  break  through 
the  barrier  before  them.  General  Franseky  sent  his  in- 
fantry to  attack  the  wood,  and  directed  his  artillery  to 
open  a  vigorous  fire  upon  the  Austrian  batteries.  The 
infantry  for  a  few  minutes  fired  directly  into  the  wood, 
but  very  soon  discovered  that  their  shots  were  practically 
wasted,  as  the  Austrians  were  concealed  behind  the  trees 
and  suffered  little  from  the  Prussian  bullets.  Finding  the 
musketry  fire  useless.  General  Franseky  ordered  a  bayo- 
net charge,  and  his  men  went  at  the  wood  with  great 
vigor.     The  Austrians  held  to  their  position,  and  in  this 


BA  TTLE   OF  KOENIGGRA  TZ.  317 

wood  was  fought  the  severest  hand-to-hand  battle 
known  during  the  entire  day.  When  the  27th  Prussian 
regiment  went  into  battle  on  that  eventful  morning, 
it  had  a  strength  of  3,000  men  and  90  officers  ;  when 
it  emerged  from  the  wood  on  the  other  side,  having 
driven  out  tlie  Austrians,  there  were  less  than  400 
men  in  Hne  and  only  2  officers.  All  the  rest  were 
either  killed  or  wounded.  Every  regiment  of  the  divi- 
sion suffered  nearly  as  much,  though  not  quite  as  heavily, 
but  they  accomplished  their  purpose  and  forced  the  Aus- 
trians out  of  that  strong  defence. 

The  Austrian  line  had  now  been  driven  in  on  both 
flanks,  but  a  new  line  of  battle  was  formed  round  Lipa,  a 
short  distance  farther  up  the  hill  and  including  the  wood 
which  lies  above  Sadowa.  While  this  line  was  being 
formed,  the  Prussian  artillery  crossed  the  Bistritz  and 
opened  fire  upon  the  new  position  of  the  Austrians.  At 
the  same  time  the  smoke  of  General  Herewarth's  advance 
toward  the  Austrian  left  was  distinctly  visible.  He  had 
crossed  the  Bistritz  at  Nechawitz,  about  seven  miles  be- 
low the  point  where  the  7th  division  crossed.  There 
he  found  some  Austrian  cavalry  and  a  brigade  of  Saxon 
troops,  which  he  drove  in  the  direction  of  Lipa.  The 
Austrian  commander  seemed  determined  to  retain  his 
position,  and  his  cavalry  and  infantry  were  massed  in 
great  force  on  the  most  favorable  part  of  the  hill. 

The  Prussian  infantry  which  had  occupied  Sadowa  and 
Dohelnitz  was  now  sent  to  assault  the  wood  above  Sa- 
dowa, and  skirting  the  wood  between  Sadowa  and  Lipa 
as  they  advanced  against  it,  they  lost  heavily.  The  Aus- 
trians were  in  concealment,  as  in  the  wood  which  had 
already  been  taken,  and  they  were  supported  by  a  battery 
at  one  end  of  the  wood,  which  poured  a  destructive  fire 
upon  the  advancing  Prussians.  Although  the  fire  against 
them  was  very  severe,  the  Prussians  steadily  fought  their 
way   forward,  and   finally  dashed  at   the  wood  with  the 


3l8  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

bayonet.  The  fighting  was  hand  to  hand  as  before, 
the  Aiistrians  disputing  the  possession  of  every  tree  and 
falling  in  great  numbers.  As  the  Austrians  retired  some- 
what from  their  position,  a  chance  was  given  for  other 
batteries  to  come  into  play  against  the  Prussians.  About 
midway  in  the  wood  the  latter  suffered  so  terribly  that 
the  fight  became  a  stationary  one. 

The  Austrian  artillery  performed  such  effective  work  in 
this  position  that  it  seemed,  a  little  after  mid-day,  as  though 
the  Prussians  would  be  unable  to  advance  any  farther. 
They  were  obliged  to  fight  very  hard  to  retain  the  posi- 
tion they  had  gained.  At  one  time  most  of  their  guns 
had  been  dismounted  by  the  Austrian  artillery  fire,  and 
where  the  ground  was  thickly  wooded  the  needle-gun 
could  not  be  used  to  advantage,  so  that  the  infantry  fight 
was  about  even.  Prince  Frederick  Charles  ordered  for- 
ward the  5th  and  6th  divisions  which  had  been  held  in 
reserve.  They  piled  their  knapsacks  and  helmets  on  the 
ground  before  crossing  the  river.  As  they  advanced, 
they  passed  the  king,  who  had  remained  near  the  Bis- 
tritz,  and  in  doing  so  they  greeted  him  with  loud  cheers. 
They  passed  rapidly  over  the  ridge  of  Sadowa  and  entered 
the  wood,  where  very  soon  the  increased  rattle  and  roar 
of  musketry  told  that  they  were  actively  engaged.  The 
Austrian  artillery  poured  volley  after  volley  among  therri, 
and  they  only  succeeded  in  advancing  a  few  hundred 
yards.  At  one  time  they  fell  back,  and  for  a  little  while 
there  were  great  fears  that  the  day  was  lost.  They  were 
torn  and  mangled  by  the  fragments  of  the  shells  that 
dropped  among  them,  and  crushed  by  the  splinters  and 
fragments  of  the  trees  which  the  artillery  fire  tore 
away  and  dropped  among  them.  Some  of  the  officers 
and  soldiers  said  after  the  battle  that  these  splinters  of 
wood  were  even  more  fearful  than  the  shells. 

On  the  right  it  seemed  as  if  General  Herewarth  was 
checked,  as  the  cloud  of  smoke  from  his  artillery  and  in- 


BATTLE   OF  KOENIGGRATZ.  319 

fantry  did  not  advance,  but  remained  in  one  position. 
Franseky's  division  had  suffered  so  terribly  that  it  was  not 
in  condition  to  be  sent  forward  to  attack  the  Sadowa 
wood.  In  addition  to  the  fearful  losses  they  had  sus- 
tained, they  would  have  been  exposed  to  the  risk  of  being 
taken  in  rear  by  the  artillery  on  the  right  of  the  Austrian 
line  of  battle  before  Lipa.  All  the  Prussian  artillery,  ex- 
cepting eight  batteries,  was  engaged.  These  eight  bat- 
teries were  held  in  reserve  in  case  of  a  reverse.  At  one 
time  the  firing  in  the  Sadowa  wood  and  of  the  Prussian 
artillery  on  the  slope  seemed  to  be  retiring  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  river. 

It  was  very  certain  that  the  First  Army  was  checked  in 
its  advance,  even  if  it  had  not  been  actually  driven  back. 
Prince  Frederick  Charles  became  anxious,  and  sent  couriers 
to  the  left  to  ascertain  about  the  advance  of  the  Crown 
Prince.  In  a  little  while  it  was  found  that  some  of  the 
Austrian  artillery  near  Lipa  were  firing  toward  the  Prus- 
sian left,  and  the  hope  was  anxiously  entertained  that  this 
fire  was  against  the  advanced  guard  of  the  Second  Army. 

Prince  Frederick  Charles  and  his  generals  were  greatly 
disturbed  at  the  situation.  They  drew  the  infantry  out 
of  the  battle  and  formed  their  cavalry  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  would  be  available  either  in  pursuing  the  Austrians 
in  case  of  victory  or  for  retarding  the  pursuit  in  the  event 
of  defeat.  General  von  Rhetz,  the  chief  of  the  staff, 
went  away  with  an  escort  to  look  for  the  Second  Army. 
He  returned  very  soon,  bringing  the  joyous  intelligence 
that  the  Second  Army  was  forming  for  an  attack  on  Lipa, 
and  that  the  Austrian  artillery  on  the  right  had  been  firing 
against  the  Crown  Prince's  advance.  The  word  was 
passsed  from  one  to  another,  and  where  gloom  had  settled 
shortly  before,  was  now  to  be  seen  the  expression  of  de- 
light and  hope.  The  infantry  and  cavalry  were  sent  again 
at  the  Sadowa  wood,  which  they  carried,  and  the  battery 
beyond  it  was  stormed  and  taken. 


320  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

The  Crown  Prince's  columns  were  visible  about  half- 
past  three  in  the  afternoon  advancing  against  Lipa  across 
the  slope  in  front  of  him.  His  artillery  had  silenced  that 
of  the  Austrians,  and  General  Herewarth  again  began  to 
press  against  the  Austrian  left  wing.  For  half  an  hour, 
perhaps,  the  Crown  Prince's  infantry  vigorously  engaged 
the  Austrians  at  Lipa.  The  increasing  volume  of  sound 
from  their  rapid  volleys  showed  that  they  were  advancing 
and  that  the  Austrians  were  in  full  retreat.  Then  the 
order  was  given  for  the  First  Army  to  advance  in  full 
force.  The  artillery  was  sent  up  the  slope  at  a  gallop, 
coming  into  action  whenever  opportunity  presented,  and 
pouring  a  vigorous  fire  against  the  retreating  columns, 
while  the  infantry  which  had  carried  the  wood  pressed 
forward  at  double  quick  and  made  a  vigorous  pursuit. 

Prince  Frederick  Charles  led  his  own  regiment  across 
the  Sadowa  bridge  and  along  the  road,  and  was  followed 
closely  by  all  his  light  cavalry.  As  he  reached  the  top  of 
the  slope  the  retreating  squadrons  and  battalions  of  the 
Austrians  were  within  range  of  the  Prussian  artillery  and 
crossed  a  depression  lying  between  Lipa  and  Streselitz,  a 
village  about  two  miles  farther  southward.  On  the  crest 
of  the  Lipa  Hill  the  Prussian  artillery  halted  and  fired 
with  great  rapidity  at  the  dense  masses  of  fugitives.  The 
cavalry  was  sent  to  press  the  retreat,  but  was  prevented 
by  the  Austrian  artillery,  which  fired  vigorously  from  the 
Streselitz  ridge.  The  cavalry  charged  repeatedly  upon 
the  Austrians,  but  their  battalions  could  not  be  broken. 

The  Prussian  artillery  fire  was  now  much  more  heavy 
than  that  of  the  Austrians,  and  had  succeeded  in  driving 
the  Austrian  batteries  away  from  the  ridge.  Some  of  the 
retreating  Austrians  moved  in  direction  of  Koeniggratz 
and  others  in  that  of  Pardubitz,  and  the  Prussians 
went  in  pursuit  along  both  roads.  The  ground  was 
thickly  covered  with  dead  and  wounded.  The  wounded 
shrieked  with  fear  as  they  saw  the  cavalry  galloping  tow- 


321 


322  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

ard  them.  They  expected  to  be  trampled  to  death  in  a 
moment,  but  by  an  order  of  Prince  Frederick  Charles,  the 
cavalry  moved  around  to  the  right  in  order  to  avoid  them. 
At  one  time  the  Prince  checked  the  pursuit  to  give  time  to 
reconnoitre  the  ground  and  make  sure  that  no  wounded 
Austrians  were  lying  there. 

Many  of  the  Austrian  infantry  were  captured  by  the 
pursuing  cavalry.  The  pursuit  was  continued  until  nine 
o'clock  in  the  evening  and  did  not  stop  until  it.  had 
reached  the  banks  of  the  Elbe.  The  main  body  of  the 
army  came  to  a  halt  about  seven  o'clock.  When  the 
Prince  returned  from  the  pursuit,  he  was  loudly  cheered 
by  all  his  soldiers.  He  immediately  gave  an  order  that 
every  attention  should  be  shown  to  the  wounded  and  no 
discrimination  between  Prussians  and  Austrians. 

During  the  battle  the  troops  on  both  sides  displayed 
the  greatest  bravery,  and  no  distinction  could  be  made 
in  favor  of  one  or  the  other  so  far  as  personal  and  sol- 
dierly valor  is  concerned.  About  1,500  pieces  of  artillery 
were  in  action,  almost  equally  divided  between  Prussians 
and  Austrians.  The  victory  was  due  to  the  Crown 
Prince's  attack  on  the  left  flank  of  the  Austrians  com- 
bined with  the  attack  in  front,  which  had  been  of  great 
effect  and  materially  absorbed  the  fighting  abilities  of  the 
Austrians.  The  latter  had  been  engaged  since  daybreak, 
and  after  fighting  until  three  in  the  afternoon  were  assailed 
by  the  fresh  troops  of  the  Crown  Prince,  which  came  up 
at  that  hour.  The  steady  maintenance  of  the  attack  in 
front  by  the  First  Army  precluded  the  possibility  of  the 
Austrians  being  able  to  repulse  the  attack  in  flank  by  the 
Second  Army.  The  Prussians  had  not  far  from  250,000 
men  engaged  in  both  their  armies.  The  Austrians  were 
slightly  more  numerous  than  the  Prussians.  The  Prus- 
sians took  174  cannon  and  14  flags  ;  they  admit  in  their 
official  reports  a  loss  of  io,ooo  killed  and  wounded,  while 
the  total  loss  of  the  Austrians  was  placed  at  40,000,  of 


BA  TTLE    OF  KOENIGGKA  TZ.  323 

whom  18,000  were  prisoners.  There  were  many  strag- 
glers, and  the  route  followed  by  the  retreating  army  was 
strewn  with  knapsacks,  muskets,  provisions,  clothing, 
munitions  of  war,  and  kindred  material,  such  as  can  al- 
ways be  found  in  the  wake  of  a  retreating  and  demoral- 
ized  force. 

The  rapid  firing  of  the  needle-gun  was  an  important 
factor  in  winning  the  battle  of  Sadowa.  But  the  superior 
organization  of  the  Prussians,  their  admirable  strategy 
before  the  battle  and  equally  admirable  tactics  during  its 
progress,  and  the  carefully  timed  junction  of  the  First  and 
Second  Armies  at  the  proper  moment,  were  of  more  con- 
sequence than  the  operation  of  the  weapon  which  has 
revolutionized  the  armament  of  the  infantry  soldier  all 
over  the  civilized  globe. 

It  was  several  days  before  the  Austrians  were  able  to 
collect  their  scattered  battalions  and  put  their  army  once 
more  into  any  thing  like  a  fighting  condition.  All  the 
northern  provinces  of  Austria  were  abandoned  to  the 
enemy,  and  the  army  retreated  upon  Vienna,  halting  oc- 
casionally to  hold  the  advancing  Prussians  in  check,  but 
delivering  no  severe  blow  or  offering  any  great  obstacle 
to  their  progress.  On  the  30th  July  an  armistice  was 
granted,  and  two  days  later  the  king  of  Prussia  reviewed 
his  army  fifteen  miles  from  Vienna.  After  the  review 
the  Prussians  started  on  their  return,  while  negotiations 
for  peace  were  rapidly  pushed. 

On  the  23d  August  the  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at 
Prague.  By  its  articles  Austria  consented  to  the  breaking 
up  of  the  German  confederation,  and  to  Prussia's  annexa- 
tion of  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel,  Nassau,  and  Frankfort. 
She  also  gave  up  Holstein  and  her  political  influence  in 
Northern  Germany,  and  made  other  concessions  of  minor 
importance.  About  the  same  time  Austria  made  a  truce 
with  Italy,  and  on  October  3d  a  definitive  peace,  by  which 
the  union  of  Vcnetia  and  Lombardy  with  Italy  was  rec- 


324  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

ognized  on  condition  that  their  debts  should  be  assumed 
by  Victor  Emanuel's  government.  As  a  further  result  of 
her  defeat,  Austria  was  compelled  to  give  legislative  inde- 
pendence to  Hungary  ;  in  1867  the  emperor  of  Austria 
was  crowned  king  of  Hungary,  and  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy  was  formed. 

On  the  l6th  July  the  king  of  Prussia  invited  the  states 
of  North  Germany  to  form  a  new  confederation.  They 
responded  with  alacrity  to  the  invitation,  impelled  perhaps 
by  profound  respect  for  the  kingdom  that  had  carried 
its  victorious  arms  almost  to  within  sight  of  the  Austrian 
capital.  The  confederation  lasted  until  the  establish- 
ment of  the  German  empire  in  1871,  and  this  empire  may 
be  said,  in  some  respects,  to  owe  its  establishment  to  the 
victory  of  Sadowa. 


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CHAPTER  XVIII. 

BATTLE  OF  GRAVELOTTE — 1870. 

The  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870-71  had  its  origin  in 
the  traditional  ill-feeHng  between  French  and  Germans, 
a  feeling  that  has  long  existed,  but  has  been  particularly- 
bitter  since  the  Napoleonic  wars  at  the  end  of  the  last 
and  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  In  March, 
1867,  a  dispute  arose  between  France  and  Prussia  relative 
to  the  possession  of  Luxembourg.  The  emperor  of 
France  proposed  purchasing  the  province  from  the  king 
of  Holland;  Prussia  earnestly  opposed  the  purchase,  since 
Luxembourg  had  formed  part  of  the  dissolved  Germanic 
Confederation.  The  air  was  filled  with  rumors  of  war,  and 
the  affair  was  only  quieted  by  a  conference  at  London  of 
the  representatives  of  the  great  powers,  by  whom  it  was 
decreed  that  the  fortress  of  Luxembourg  should  be  de- 
molished and  the  perfect  neutrality  of  the  province 
guaranteed. 

For  three  years  from  this  time  there  was  no  disturb- 
ance of  the  peace,  but  both  France  and  Prussia  made 
preparations  for  war.  On  the  4th  of  July,  1870,  Prince 
Leopold  of  Hohenzollern  consented  to  become  a  candi- 
date for  the  then  vacant  throne  of  Spain,  and  as  soon  as 
the  fact  was  known  there  was  great  excitement  in  France 
in  consequence.  Threatening  speeches  Avere  made  in  the 
French  Chambers  by  the  Due  de  Grammont,  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  but  after  some  negotiation  and  the  inter- 
vention  of  England,  Prince  Leopold  on  July  12th  volun- 

325 


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CHAPTER  XVIII. 

BATTLE  OF  GRAVELOTTE — 1870. 

The  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870-71  had  its  origin  in 
the  traditional  ill-feeling  between  French  and  Germans, 
a  feeling  that  has  long  existed,  but  has  been  particularly- 
bitter  since  the  Napoleonic  wars  at  the  end  of  the  last 
and  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  In  March, 
1867,  a  dispute  arose  between  France  and  Prussia  relative 
to  the  possession  of  Luxembourg.  The  emperor  of 
France  proposed  purchasing  the  province  from  the  king 
of  Holland;  Prussia  earnestly  opposed  the  purchase,  since 
Luxembourg  had  formed  part  of  the  dissolved  Germanic 
Confederation.  The  air  was  filled  with  rumors  of  war,  and 
the  affair  was  only  quieted  by  a  conference  at  London  of 
the  representatives  of  the  great  powers,  by  whom  it  was 
decreed  that  the  fortress  of  Luxembourg  should  be  de- 
molished and  the  perfect  neutrality  of  the  province 
guaranteed. 

For  three  years  from  this  time  there  was  no  disturb- 
ance of  the  peace,  but  both  France  and  Prussia  made 
preparations  for  war.  On  the  4th  of  July,  1870,  Prince 
Leopold  of  Hohenzollern  consented  to  become  a  candi- 
date for  the  then  vacant  throne  of  Spain,  and  as  soon  as 
the  fact  was  known  there  was  great  excitement  in  France 
in  consequence.  Threatening  speeches  were  made  in  the 
French  Chambers  by  the  Due  de  Grammont,  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  but  after  some  negotiation  and  the  inter- 
vention  of  England,  Prince  Leopold  on  July  12th  volun- 

325 


326  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

tarily  retired  from  the  candidacy,  and  declined  the  crown 
that  had  been  offered  him.  On  the  13th  France  de- 
manded from  Prussia  a  guaranty  that  no  such  offer 
should  be  accepted  in  future ;  Prussia  was  naturally  irri- 
tated by  the  demand,  and  refused  it,  whereupon  the 
French  minister.  Count  Benedetti,  retired  from  Prussia, 
and  almost  immediately  thereafter  the  Prussian  minister 
left  Paris. 

The  emperor  declared  war  on  the  15th  of  July,  with  the 
hearty  concurrence  of  the  great  majority  of  the  French 
Chambers.  After  his  surrender  the  emperor  told  Count 
Bismarck  that  he  did  not  desire  war,  but  had  been  forced 
into  it  by  public  opinion.  He  was  evidently  greatly  de- 
ceived as  to  the  strength  and  condition  of  his  army,  and 
equally  deceived  as  to  the  forces  that  Prussia  could  bring 
into  the  field.  Though  vastly  more  numerous  on  paper, 
the  French  had  hardly  more  than  300,000  men  ready 
for  the  field,  while  the  Germans  had  treble  that  num- 
ber. Including  their  reserves  and  landwehr,  or  mi- 
litia, the  Germans  had,  on  the  first  of  August,  1870,  a 
grand  effective  of  944,000  men,  while  on  the  peace  foot- 
ing, a  month  earlier,  they  had  but  360,000.  To  the  total 
on  the  war  footing  given  above  must  be  added  the  forces 
of  Bavaria,  Wurtemburg,  and  Baden,  which  gave  a  grand 
total  for  the  German  strength  of  1,124,000  men.  Napo- 
leon had  counted  on  the  neutrality  of  the  southern  states 
of  the  North  German  Confederation,  if  not  on  their  active 
hostility  to  Prussia,  and  is  said  to  have  been  greatly  dis- 
concerted when,  on  the  19th  July,  the  parliament  met  at 
Berlin  and  resolved  to  support  Prussia  in  the  war. 

Impartial  observers  predicted  at  the  beginning  of  the 
contest  that  the  result  would  be  disastrous  to  France. 
Commenting  upon  the  war  the  Quarterly  Review  says : 
"  The  causes  of  the  early  ruin  of  the  French  army  were: 
(i)  The  enormous  superiority  of  the  Germans  in  regard  to 
numbers  ;  (2)  the  absolute  unity  of  their  command  and 


BATTLE   OF  GRAVELOTTE.  32/ 

concert  of  operation  ;  (3)  their  superior  mechanism  in 
equipment  and  supplies ;  (4)  tlie  superior  intelligence, 
steadiness,  and  discipline  of  the  soldiers  ;  (5)  superior  edu- 
cation of  the  officers,  and  the  dash  and  intelligence  of  the 
cavalry."  The  French  and  Germans  were  equally  brave, 
but  the  French  generals  seemed  to  act  often  upon  im- 
pulse, while  every  move  of  the  Germans  was  the  result  of 
a  carefully  elaborated  plan.  From  the  beginning  to  the 
end  Von  Moltke  seems  to  have  lei'L  nothing  to  chance,  and 
whatever  his  instructions  to  his  subordinates  they  were 
faithfully  carried  out. 

Both  armies  were  massed  on  their  frontiers  ;  that  of  the 
Germans  being  assembled  much  more  rapidly  than  the 
army  of  the  Rhine,  which  constituted  the  French  force  to 
advance  upon  Berlin.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  latter  exceeded 
270,000  effectives,  though  it  had  a  nominal  strength  01 
310,000,  while  the  Germans  had  an  active  force  of  447,000, 
divided  into  three  armies,  commanded  respectively  by 
General  Von  Steinmetz,  Prince  Frederick  Charles,  and  the 
Crown  Prince  of  Prussia.  The  armies  confronted  each 
other  at  the  end  of  July,  when  the  chief  command  of  the 
French  was  taken  by  the  emperor,  and  that  of  the  Ger- 
mans by  King  William  of  Prussia.  On  the  2d  of  August 
active  hostilities  began  with  an  encounter  at  Saarbruck,  the 
offensive  being  taken  by  the  French,  and  the  conflict  re- 
sulting in  their  favor.  On  the  same  day  the  German 
armies  began  their  advance,  and  on  the  4th  the  battle  of 
Weissenburg  resulted  in  their  favor,  as  the  French  were 
driven  from  the  field  after  five  hours  of  fighting,  during 
which  General  Douay,  the  P^rench  commander,  was  killed. 
On  the  6th  was  fought  the  battle  cf  Woerth,  in  which  the 
French  made  a  stubborn  resistance,  but  were  compelled  to 
retire.  Weissenburg  and  Woerth  were  fought  with  the 
Crown  Prince's  army  ;  meantime  the  armies  of  Steinmetz 
and  Prince  P^-ederick  Charles  had  effected  a  junction,  oc- 
cupied   Saarbruck    and    P^orbach,    and    on    the    6th    haci 


328  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE    WATERLOO. 

defeated  the  French  at  Spicheren,  occupying  the  heights 
and  driving  General  Frossard  both  from  his  first  Hne  of 
battle  and  from  the  position  he  afterwards  tried  to  take 
near  St.  Avoid. 

The  result  of  the  movements  of  the  Germans  and  the 
victories  above  mentioned  was  to  drive  Frossard  in  the 
direction  of  Metz,  where  Bazaine's  corps  was  joined  by 
L'Admirault's  from  Thionville,  and  by  divisions  under 
Bourbaki  and  Canrobert.  There  was  now  no  obstacle 
to  the  junction  of  the  three  Prussian  armies,  and  by 
the  I  ith  they  formed  an  unbroken  line,  vvath  head-quarters 
in  Saarbruck.  On  the  14th  the  first  army  was  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Metz,  and  frustrated  the  attempt  of  the  French 
to  retreat  to  the  line  of  the  Marne.  The  defeat  of  the  French 
at  Courcelles  on  the  14th,  and  at  Vionville,  or  Mars-la-Tour, 
on  the  i6th,  completed  the  cutting  off  of  Bazaine's  com- 
mand from  junction  with  other  French  forces,  though  it 
cost  heavily  to  the  Germans  in  loss  of  men.  Bazaine  now 
massed  his  troops  at  a  position  between  Gravelotte  and  St. 
Privat  le  Montagne,  and  made  ready  for  a  battle  that 
should  be  decisive.  Winning  it  he  would  break  through 
the  German  lines  and  retreat  to  the  Marne,  while  by  losing 
It  he  would  be  shut  up  in  Metz,  or  at  all  events  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  French  arm}-. 

At  the  break  of  day  on  the  17th,  the  movement  of  the 
French  army  into  its  new  position  began.  Late  at  night 
on  the  i6th  one  division  of  the  3d  corps  had  reached  the 
battle-field  of  Vionville,  and  this  division  was  ordered  into 
position  between  the  Bois  des  Ognons  and  Malmaison,  in 
order  to  cover  the  retreat  of  the  left  wing,  which  was  the 
most  exposed.  There  was  great  difificulty  in  moving  the 
enormous  train,  as  there  was  but  a  single  way  open  for  it, 
the  road  from  Gravelotte  to  Metz.  The  French  ofificers 
saw  that  the  road  was  so  blocked,  and  the  wagons  so 
closely  crowded  and  in  such  a  state  of  confusion,  that  a 
panic  would  have  followed  the  appearance  of  even  a  few 
squadrons  of  German  cavalry. 


BATTLE   OF  GRAVELOTTE.  329 

On  the  morning  of  the  17th  Prince  Frederick  Charles, 
who  had  spent  the  night  after  the  battle  of  the  i6th  at 
Porze,  rode  along  the  lines  to  make  a  personal  inspection 
of  the  ground  held  by  his  forces.  The  enemy's  skirmish- 
ing line  was  clearly  visible  in  front  of  Rezonville.  It 
stretched  out  for  a  long  distance,  and  there  was  evidently 
a  strong  force  behind  it,  to  judge  by  the  frequent  trumpet 
calls  that  were  wafted  by  the  morning  breeze.  About  six 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  King  William  arrived  with  his 
staff  and  occupied  the  new  head-quarters  which  had  been 
selected. 

On  the  15th  of  August  the  right  wing  was  advancing, 
the  12th  infahtry  division  being  near  Arracourt,  the  2d 
division  corps  on  the  Nancy  road,  and  the  1st  Bavarian 
corps  not  far  from  Einville.  In  the  centre  of  the  Prussian 
line  was  the  5th  corps,  supported  by  the  Wurtemburg 
division.  It  advanced  to  Dombasle  on  the  Meurthe,  and 
took  a  strong  position  on  the  left  bank  of  that  stream. 
On  the  extreme  left  the  i  ith  corps  rested  on  the  Moselle 
at  Bayon.  The  iith  infantry  division  was  at  Henning 
supporting  the  left  wing,  the  2d  cavalry  division  was  far- 
ther advanced,  being  nearly  five  miles  more  to  the  front. 
The  4th  cavalry  division  was  at  Nancy,  and  examining 
carefully  the  country  towards  Toul,  but  without  encoun- 
tering any  considerable  bodies  of  the  French.  They  met 
■a  few  bands  of  franc-tirciirs,  which  were  easily  scattered. 
By  great  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  officers  superintending 
the  transportation  department,  all  the  trains  of  the  differ- 
ent divisions  were  brought  up  closer  to  the  rear  and  put 
in  readiness  for  any  further  movement. 

There  was  very  little  movement  of  the  Third  Army  on 
the  i6th,  as  it  was  necessary  to  wait  for  developments  in 
and  around  Mctz  before  ordering  the  army  of  the  Crown 
Prince  to  push  any  farther  forward.  The  4th  cavalry 
division  was  brought  forward  from  Nancy  on  the  i6th  in 
order  to  have  it  in  proper  position  in  case  the  army  should 


330  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  IVATERLOO. 

be  advanced  towards  St.  Dizier.  The  right  wing  of  the 
army,  the  2d  Bavarian  corps,  remained  in  the  vicinity  of 
Nancy.  On  the  17th  the  head-quarters  of  the  Third  Army 
were  changed  to  Nancy,  and  the  1st  Bavarian  corps  moved 
forward  to  St.  Nicholas,  which  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Meurthe.  The  nearest  objective  point  of  the  Third  Army 
was  the  fortress  of  Toul.  The  6th  corps  had  been  some- 
what scattered,  and  on  the  i6th  and  17th  the  various  di- 
visions were  brought  together,  so  that  they  reached  Bayon 
on  the  1 8th.  The  Prussian  army  was  arranged — -previous 
to  the  decisive  battle  of  Gravelotte,  so  that  one  portion 
of  it  could  attack  Metz,  while  another  could  continue  the 
advance  on  Paris. 

The  Second  Army  arrived  at  the  Moselle  on  the  i6th. 
The  4th  corps  and  the  Prussian  Guards  moved  in  the 
direction  of  Toul,  the  former  going  to  Siazer.iy,  and  the 
other  to  Bernecourt.  It  was  by  no  means  certain  whether 
the  French  army  would  retreat  to  Verdun,  or  give  battle  at 
Metz,  or  in  its  neighborhood.  The  latter  alternative  was 
forced  by  the  attack  made  by  the  3d  and  9th  corps,  and 
consequently  it  was  advisable  for  the  Germans  to  concen- 
trate as  much  as  possible  before  the  opening  of  the  final 
battle. 

Orders  were  issued  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles  during 
the  evening  of  the  i6th  for  the  concentration  of  the  Sec- 
ond Army  on  the  battle-field  of  that  day.  The  12th  corps ' 
was  ordered  to  move  immediately  from  Pont-a-Mousson  to 
Mars-la-Tour,  and  the  Saxon  corps  was  brought  to  a  point 
not  far  from  Mars-la-Tour.  The  longest  march  of  the 
Second  Army  was  performed  by  the  Guards,  who  had  a 
distance  of  nineteen  miles  to  travel  from  Bernecourt,  which 
they  accomplished  in  ten  hours. 

Nearly  all  the  French  troops  had  been  concentrated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Moselle,  and  consequently  there  was 
no  great  danger  of  a  sortie  from  Metz  towards  the  east  or 
south.     The  German  commanders  decided  that   a   sin£rle 


BATTLE    OF  GRAVELOTTE.  33 1 

corps  was  sufficient  to  observe  the  city  itself,  and  conse- 
quently withdrew  all  but  the  1st  corps.  The  7th  and  8th 
corps  were  sent  over  the  Moselle  and  placed  behind  the 
9th  corps,  where  they  formed  the  extreme  right  of  the 
German  army.  The  8th  corps  and  the  1st  cavalry  divi- 
sion, which  were  at  the  west  of  the  St.  Arnould  wood,  the 
7th  corps,  occupying  the  valley  between  theBois  desVaux 
and  the  Bois  des  Ognons,  were  ordered  to  remain  in  their 
positions.  A  few  scouting  parties  of  the  French  encoun- 
tered the  pickets  of  the  7th  corps.  Some  sharp  firing  en- 
sued but  no  serious  damage  was  done,  and  the  Germans 
had  strict  orders  not  to  bring  on  a  battle.  General  von 
Steinmetz  made  a  reconnoissance  on  the  Bois  des  Ognons, 
south  of  Gravelotte,  and  found  that  the  French  were  in 
strong  force  in  the  vicinity  of  Gravelotte.  Their  num- 
ber was  estimated  at  fully  three  army  corps,  and  from  the 
commanding  positioi  where  General  von  Steinmetz  made 
his  observation,  it  was  easily  perceived  that  the  villages 
and  farm-houses  of  St.  Hubert  and  Point  de  Jour  were 
occupied  and  surrounded  by  infantry  and  artillery.  There 
were  also  many  mitrailleuses,  which  fired  vigorously  on 
every  Prussian  skirmishing  party  that  came  within  reach. 
The  positions  allotted  to  the  French  forces  on  the  17th 
were  not  changed.  Marshal  Bazaine  simply  ordered  the 
commanders  to  fortify  themselves  as  much  as  possible. 
The  slope  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Moselle  from  the  water's 
edge  to  the  heights  of  St.  Quentin  and  Plappcville  is  quite 
steep,  and  covered  with  a  thin  forest.  There  are  two  nar- 
row valleys,  or  gorges,  that  cross  this  slope,  both  of  them 
with  very  steep  sides  ;  one  of  them  is  about  three  hundred 
paces  from  the  crest  of  the  slope,  while  the  other,  farther  to 
the  west,  is  a  deep  ravine,  running  first  in  a  southerly  direc- 
tion and  afterwards  towards  the  east.  The  French  army 
was  posted  on  the  range  of  hills  between  these  two  valleys. 
The  main  road  between  Metz  and  Gravelotte  passes 
through  the  southern  part  of  this  slope,  with  a  great  many 


332  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

windings,  and  in  places  cut  deeply  into  the  earth.  The 
slope  is,  for  the  most  part,  regular,  and  not  at  all  steep ; 
consequently  the  ground  was  favorable  for  the  erection  of 
batteries  in  tiers,  one  above  the  other.  The  French  had 
taken  advantage  of  this  position,  and  thrown  up  a  liberal 
number  of  batteries.  Behind  the  crest  of  the  ridge  there 
were  many  positions,  covered  by  bits  or  stretches  of  for- 
est, and  also  intersected  with  small  ravines  and  valleys, 
all  of  which  furnished  excellent  cover  for  a  defending 
force.  The  assailing  party  would  thus  be  obliged  to  make 
his  attack  over  sloping  ground,  which  offered  no  cover, 
while  the  defenders  were  comparatively  well  sheltered. 

The  slopes  of  the  valley  through  which  the  Meuse 
passes  were  covered  with  wood,  but  not  sufficiently  to 
interfere  with  the  view  from  the  French  position,  or  de- 
tract from  the  effect  of  their  fire. 

Canrobert's  corps,  the  6th,  formed  the  right  wing  of  the 
French  position.  The  line  it  occupied  was  known  as  that 
of  Amanvillers.  The  4th  corps,  commanded  by  De 
L'Admirault,  continued  the  line  from  that  of  the  6th 
corps  to  Montigny-la-Grange,  and  had  an  advanced  post 
at  Champenois.  The  centre  was  formed  by  the  3d  corps, 
while  the  2d  corps,  Frossard's,  had  a  strong  position  on 
the  left.  The  Imperial  Guards  were  in  the  rear  of  the  left 
wing  at  Bau  St.  Martin,  and  formed  the  main  reserve. 
Along  the  line  of  heights  from  St,  Quentin  to  Plappeville, 
already  described,  120  pieces  of  artillery  were  ready  for 
action  ;  but  the  forts  of  St,  Quentin  and  Des  Carrieres 
were  not  mounted  with  guns.  The  position  gave  a  fine 
view  over  the  whole  region.  Marshal  Bazaine  established 
his  head-quarters  there  on  the  morning  of  the  i8th,  and 
remained  there  throughout  the  battle. 

The  French  front  was  about  seven  miles  long,  and  the 
position  was  an  admirable  one  for  a  defending  army.  The 
left  wing  was  especially  strong,  as  it  occupied  a  steep 
height,    which   was   almost    inaccessible,   while   the  right 


BATTLE    OF   GRAVELOTTE.  333 

wing  was  not  so  well  protected,  as  it  had  no  fortification 
to  rest  upon.  It  is  generally  believed  that  Marshal 
Bazaine  was  still  confident  of  escaping  with  his  army  from 
Metz.  He  was  ready  for  an  attack,  and  hoped  that  the 
superiority  of  his  position,  the  destructive  fire  of  his  artil- 
lery, small-arms,  and  machine  guns  would  be  able  to  repel 
the  enemy,  and  bring  him  victory.  As  soon  as  this  was 
accomplished  the  time  would  be  propitious  for  making 
his  retreat.  The  entire  arrangement  of  the  French  for 
the  battle  of  the  i8th  was  purely  a  defensive  one,  and  in 
no  manner  did  they  intend  to  make  it  offensive.  The 
strictest  orders  were  issued  to  the  corps  commanders  not 
to  advance,  but  to  retain  their  positions  as  long  as  pos- 
sible, no  matter  how  great  might  be  their  loss. 

The  German  armies  well  understood  that  the  battle 
must  be  an  offensive  one,  and  fought  under  great  disad- 
vantages of  position.  A  concentration  had  been  made  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  afford  the  greatest  possible  celerity 
in  supporting  any  parts  of  the  line  that  might  be  in  dan- 
ger.     Briefly  summarized,  the  positions  were  as  follows : 

At  Mars-la-Tour,  the  Prussian  Guards  and  12th  corps, 
with  cavalry  between  them. 

Between  Trouville  and  Vionville,  the  3d  and  loth  corps, 
with  5th  and  6th  cavalry  divisions. 

South  of  Rezonville,  the  9th  and  8th  corps,  with  first 
cavalry  division. 

Between  Bois  des  Ognons  and  Bois  des  Vaux,  the  7th 
corps,  forming  the  right  wing. 

At  Ars-sur-Moselle,  the  26th  infantry  brigade. 

The  two  contingencies  for  which  the  Germans  were 
prepared  were,  first,  that  the  French  might  try  to  retire 
on  the  1 8th  by  the  northern  road;  and,  secondly,  that 
they  might  accept  a  battle  close  to  the  walls  of  Metz,  and 
with  their  rear  in  the  direction  of  the  German  frontier. 
King  William  issued  a  general  order  on  the  afternoon  of 
the  17th  as  follows  : 


334  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

"The  second  army  will  get  under  arms  to-morrow 
morning,  August  i8,  at  5  o'clock,  and  advance  with  the 
object  of  cutting  off  the  enemy's  line  of  retreat  to  Verdun, 
and  attack  him  wherever  he  may  be  encountered,  march- 
ing in  echelons." 

The  king  personally  assumed  the  command  of  the  whole 
forces.  The  12th  and  9th  corps  moved  at  the  appointed 
time,  and  their  advance  was  at  the  Gravelotte-Conflans 
road.  At  8.30  A.M.  they  had  halted  to  wait  further  orders. 
Patrols  were  sent  out,  but  they  did  not  encounter  any 
French.  While  the  men  were  preparing  for  breakfast,  a 
little  after  ten  o'clock,  orders  to  advance  were  received. 
The  8th,  7th,  and  3d  corps  remained  in  position  where 
they  were.  It  was  now  pretty  certain,  as  no  French  had 
been  encountered,  ehat  they  were  not  seeking  to  retreat 
from  Metz  to  the  west  by  way  of  Conflans,  but  had  de- 
cided on  the  second  alternative,  a  battle  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Metz.  The  French  right  wing  was  supposed  to 
be  at  Amanvillers.  It  was  necessary,  in  order  to  reach 
that  position,  for  the  three  leading  corps  of  the  Second 
Army  of  the  Germans  to  wheel  to  the  right :  a  little  more 
reconnoitring  showed  that  the  battle  was  to  be  on  the 
broad  plateau  embraced  between  Amanvillers,  Leipsic,  and 
Moscou. 

As  the  Germans  advanced,  they  found  that  the  French 
right  extended  considerably  beyond  Amanvillers,  and 
hence  the  Guards  came  first  into  contact  with  the  enemy. 
Prince  Frederick  Charles  ordered  the  advance  to  Verne- 
ville  to  be  continued,  and  fire  was  opened  on  the  French 
about  noon.  This  may  practically  be  said  to  have  been 
the  beginning  of  the  great  battle.  Verneville  is  in  the 
open  ground  between  the  Bois  de  la  Casse  and  the  Bois 
des  Perivaux,  only  the  latter  of  these  woods  having  been 
occupied  by  the  French.  The  Bois  de  la  Casse  was  im- 
mediately occupied  by  the  Germans,  and  they  opened  an 
artillery  fire  against  the  French,  though  they  were  a  good 


336  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

deal  troubled  by  a  flank  fire  from  machine  guns  and  small- 
arms.  The  fight  at  this  point  was  maintained  for  at  least 
two  hours  by  the  nth  corps,  when  it  was  relieved  by  the 
artillery  of  the  Prussian  Guards  Corps  which  came  in  on 
the  north. 

While  this  was  going  on,  the  French  attacked  the  25th 
division  with  a  furious  artillery  fire  to  the  westward  of 
Bois  de  la  Casse.  They  were  strongly  posted  at  St.  Privat 
and  Amanvillers,  and  it  was  very  evident  that  here  some 
very  hard  fighting  would  be  required  to  drive  them   out. 

About  noon,  the  Prussian  Guards  renewed  the  advance 
from  Doncourt  and  Caulre-Ferme.  The  extension  of  the 
French  right  beyond  Amanvillers  made  it  necessary  for 
the  entire  corps  of  the  Guards  to  make  a  larger  sweep 
than  had  been  originally  contemplated,  in  order  to  attack 
the  French  right  wing  in  flank  and  double  it  up.  Accord- 
ingly, Prince  Frederick  Charles,  who  had  reached  Verne- 
ville  about  one  o'clock,  ordered  the  Guards  to  march  on 
Habonville,  in  order  to  make  the  movement  which  has 
been  designated.  The  12th  corps  had  by  this  time  brought 
its  advance  to  Battilly.  Constant  reconnoissances  showed 
that  the  French  right  extended  beyond  St.  Privat,  and 
that  Marie  aux  Chenes  was  also  strongly  held.  Prince 
August  of  Wurtemburg  received  orders  to  engage  the 
enemy  in  his  front  with  artillery,  only  keeping  back  his 
infantry  until  the  12th  corps  had  been  brought  up.  The 
lOth  corps  was  at  that  time  advancing  to  Battilly,  and  the 
3d  corps  towards  Verneville. 

General  von  Steinmetz  waited  until  the  sound  of  the 
cannonade  from  Verneville  indicated  that  the  9th  corps 
was  engaged.  He  then  commanded  the  8th  corps  to  ad- 
vance into  line  of  battle  by  way  of  Rezonville  and  Grave- 
lotte.  This  occurred  about  mid-day,  and  before  one  o'clock 
the  position  east  and  south  of  Gravelotte  had  been  oc- 
cupied by  the  Germans,  and  they  opened  fire  on  the  French 
with  fifty  guns.     The  machine  guns  and  chassepots  at  St. 


BATTLE    OF  GRAVELOTTE.  337 

Hubart  and  at  Point  de  Jour  opened  an  effective  fire  upon 
them,  but  it  was  not  sufficient  to  drive  them  out  or  to  di- 
minish the  rapidity,  vigor,  and  precision  of  their  artillery- 
practice. 

A  little  before  two  o'clock,  orders  were  given  to  ad- 
vance the  infantry  in  order  to  drive  the  French  out  of  the 
southern  part  of  theBoisdes  Perivaux.  The  15th  infantry 
division  of  the  8th  corps  made  a  rush  for  the  wood,  where 
they  encountered  four  battalions  of  French  infantry.  They 
occupied  the  southern  part  of  the  wood,  but  farther  along 
they  were  stoutly  resisted  by  the  French  and  made  very 
little  progress.  As  soon  as  the  cannonade  began.  General 
von  Zastrow  advanced  on  Gravelotte  and  the  Bois  dcs  Og- 
nons.  They  opened  a  vigorous  fire,  which  relieved  in 
great  measure  the  8th  corps.  By  two  o'clock,  the  artillery  of 
the  Guards  and  of  the  gth  corps  on  the  German  left  and  of 
the  7th  and  8th  corps  on  the  right  were  in  full  play.  Nearly 
250  cannon  were  being  fired  with  rapidity  and  precision, 
but  only  one  division,  the  i6th,  had  been  able  to  take  the 
offensive.  The  two  infantry  divisions  of  the  9th  corps 
were  quite  inactive,  as  it  was  necessary  for  them  to  wait 
until  the  left  wing  of  the  Second  Army  had  completed  its 
deployment. 

The  artillery  combat  was  vigorously  maintained  for 
several  hours,  and  as  vigorously  opposed.  By  four  o'clock 
some  fifteen  or  twenty  guns  had  been  dismounted  or  in 
some  way  became  useless,  and  most  of  the  batteries  had 
exhausted  their  ammunition.  Several  times  the  French 
endeavored  to  compel  the  artillery  to  retire,  but  each  at- 
tempt to  do  so  was  successfully  resisted.  A  little  after 
four  o'clock,  the  artillery  fighting  on  the  left  wing  became 
more  advantageous  for  the  Germans.  The  French  fire  at 
St.  Privat  and  also  at  Amanvillersand  Montigny  had  been 
pretty  nearly  silenced  by  the  fire  of  no  less  than  fourteen 
full  batteries  of  the  Germans.  Some  of  the  German  divi- 
sions suffered  severely  by  the  steady  fire  of  shell  and  can- 


338  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

ister  which  were  poured  in  by  the  French  batteries ;  in  spite 
of  this  they  held  to  their  position  and  showed  no  signs 
whatever  of  retreating. 

There  was  a  severe  fight  at  St.  Marie  aux  Chenes  be- 
tween three  battahons  of  French  and  the  5th  and  6th 
Saxon  regiments  together  with  the  first  division  of  the 
Guards.  The  Germans  attacked  under  very  great  disad- 
vantages. The  ground  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Marie  is 
quite  open,  and  the  men  had  no  cover  whatever  against 
the  French  fire.  The  bullets  from  the  chassepots  and 
machine  guns  poured  like  hail  across  this  ground  as  soon 
as  the  Germans  began  their  advance.  Their  only  way 
was  to  make  a  rush  o*^  perhaps  one  hundred  or  two  hun- 
dred paces,  then  throv  themselves  flat  on  the  ground 
and  begin  firing  ;  and  as  soon  as  they  had  taken  breath, 
rise  and  repeat  the  movement.  Rush  after  rush  was 
made  in  this  way.  Many  of  the  Germans  were  killed  and 
wounded,  but  the  advance  continued.  When  the  Ger- 
mans were  within  one  hundred  yards  of  the  village,  the 
French  evacuated  it,  not  caring  to  wait  for  the  last  rush. 

At  five  o'clock  \\\  the  afternoon,  the  French  army  was 
holding  all  'ts  principal  positions  from  one  end  of  the  line 
to  the  other,  and  had  only  lost  a  few  unimportant  points. 
The  6th  corps  on  the  right  wing  held  its  ground  at  St. 
Privat  and  Roncourt.  The  4th  corps  was  also  unmoved 
in  its  position  at  Amanvillers  and  Montigny-la-Grange  ; 
but  the  3d  corps  had  been  compelled  to  evacuate  the  Bois 
des  Vaux  in  front  of  its  left  wing,  although  it  was  still  in 
ilS  strong  position  on  the  Moscou  Heights.  In  front  of 
the  2d  corps,  every  attack  of  the  Germans  had  been  re- 
pulsed. The  Imperial  Guard  was  still  held  in  reserve  and 
was  impatient  to  be  brought  forward.  Marshal  Bazaine 
was  confident  that  the  day  would  end  in  a  victory  for  the 
French,  in  view  of  the  circumstance  that  the  Germans  had 
lost  much  more  heavily  than  his  own  army  and  had 
gained  no  position  of  consequence. 


340  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

But  he  was  not  aware  that  up  to  that  time  the  Germans 
had  only  brought  about  half  their  disposable  forces  into 
action,  and  that  a  large  body  of  German  troops  was  ready 
to  advance  on  both  wings,  especially  on  the  left.  Except- 
ing the  artillery,  only  one  infantry  brigade  of  the  I2th 
corps  and  the  Prussian  Guards  had  been  in  action  at  St. 
Marie,  while  the  two  reserve  corps  of  the  left  wing  were 
ready  to  be  brought  forward.  The  /th  and  8th  corps  on 
the  left  wing  and  the  i6th  infantry  division  and  the  2d 
corps  with  parts  of  other  divisions  and  brigades  were 
ready  to  be  brought  into  action  whenever  desired.  In 
brief,  it  may  be  said  that  three  corps  had  been  in  action, 
while  there  were  five  corps,  including  the  Prussian  Guards, 
which  were  practically  fresh  for  the  fight. 

For  five  hours  the  battle  had  been  steadily  raging  on 
the  right  of  the  Guards  without  any  gain  on  one  side  or 
the  other.  The  day  was  ending,  and  if  the  Germans  were 
to  secure  a  victory  prompt  action  was  necessary.  Unless 
the  battle  could  be  made  decisive  before  the  sun  went 
down,  it  was  possible  that  the  French  army  during  the 
night  would  concentrate  and  occupy  a  still  stronger  posi- 
tion on  the  next  day  than  they  were  occupying  on  the 
morning  of  the  i8th.  Prince  Augustus,  of  Wiirtemburg, 
determined  to  send  the  Guards  to  the  attack  without 
waiting  for  the  arrival  of  the  Saxon  corps,  which  had  been 
marching  to  join  him.  Consequently,  three  brigades  of 
the  Guards  were  sent  to  assault  the  French  position  at  St. 
Privat. 

This  position  at  St.  Privat  was  a  very  strong  one, 
and  any  commander  of  troops  would  be  justified  in 
hesitating  to  attack  it.  Close  behind  the  crest  of  the  hill 
the  ground  slopes  quite  steeply  in  the  direction  of  Metz, 
while  on  the  west  side  the  slope  is  gradual  and  regular  for 
a  distance  of  two  thousand  paces,  and  offering  no  cover  of 
any  kind  to  an  advancing  force.  Furthermore,  all  the 
houses  of  St.  Privat  had  been  loopholed,  so  that  the  place 


BATTLE    OF  GKAVELOTTE.  34I 

formed  a  sort  of  fortress.  The  attacking  army  was 
obliged  to  advance  over  this  wide  open  space,  and  fully- 
half  the  distance  they  would  be  unable  to  use  their  rifles, 
but  at  the  same  time  would  be  under  fire  of  the  French 
machine  guns  and  artillery. 

The  assault  was  led  by  the  4th  brigade.  The  skirmish- 
ers were  thrown  out  on  the  front  and  the  batteries  fol- 
lowed closely.  The  French  were  ready  for  them,  and  as 
soon  as  they  were  within  range,  the  artillery,  machine 
guns,  and  small-arms  opened  upon  them  with  full  vigor, 
cutting  wide  swaths  in  their  ranks  and  covering  the 
ground  with  dead  and  wounded.  But  the  advance  was 
continued  in  spite  of  this  furious  fire  ;  the  commanders 
and  their  staff  officers  remained  on  horseback  in  order 
that  they  might  better  control  the  troops,  but  so  many  of 
them  were  killed  that  they  soon  dismounted.  The  slaugh- 
ter became  so  great  that  the  commander  ordered  a  halt, 
fearing  that  the  brigade  would  be  annihilated  before 
reaching  the  line  of  the  enemy.  Just  then  the  Saxon 
corps  was  seen  advancing  at  double  quick  to  the  north  of 
St.  Privat,  and  immediately  the  order  to  advance  was  re- 
newed. The  soldiers  made  a  tremendous  rush,  each  man 
endeavoring  to  get  at  close  quarters  with  the  enemy. 
The  French  defended  every  position,  fighting  desperately, 
but  they  were  beaten  at  last.  The  Saxon  and  German 
columns  had  so  closely  timed  their  movements  that  they 
met  in  the  streets  of  St.  Privat.  In  a  little  while  they 
had  driven  out  the  French  and  were  in  full  possession  of 
the  place. 

By  this  time  it  was  nearly  dark.  The  French  took  up 
fresh  positions  in  the  woods  a  little  distance  away,  and 
also  in  the  quarries  at  the  edge  of  the  woods.  The  Ger- 
mans were  unable  to  pursue,  partly  on  account  of  their 
great  loss  and  partly  because  of  the  darkness.  The  re- 
verse of  the  French  in  the  capture  of  St.  Privat  soon  be- 
came known  along  the  whole  line  of  Marshal   Bazaine's 


342  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

army.  The  effect  was  demoralizing,  and  the  French  soon 
began  to  retreat  in  disorder,  abandoning  their  arms,  tents, 
and  equipage,  and  seeking  safety  inside  the  walls  of  Metz. 
But  the  darkness  which  prevented  the  advance  of  the 
Germans  also  made  it  impossible  for  Marshal  Bazaine  to 
send  the  Imperial  Guard  to  drive  back  the  assailants.  The 
battle  was  over.  As  soon  as  night  set  in  all  advance  of 
the  Germans  was  suspended.  They  encamped  on  the 
field  and  cared  for  the  wounded. 

The  loss  of  the  Germans  was  very  much  greater  than 
that  of  the  French,  as  they  had  been  throughout  the  da}- 
the  attacking  party.  The  German  loss  was  given  at  904 
officers  and  I9,0CK)  men,  while  that  of  the  French  was  stated 
to  be  809  of^cers  and  11,000  men.  On  the  German  side 
310  officers  and  4,000  men  were  killed  ;  among  them  were 
22  field  officers.  One  hundred  and  tweive  of  the  slain  offi- 
cers belonged  entirely  to  the  corps  of  the  Guards. 

The  fighting  forces  of  the  armies  in  the  battle  of  Grav- 
elotte  were  211,000  Germans,  of  whom  146,000  were  in 
the  first  line  and  65,000  in  the  reserve.  The  French  were 
estimated  at  112,000  in  strongly  entrenched  positions. 
The  losses  were,  consequently,  one  eighth  of  the  men  in 
action  for  the  French,  and  somewhat  more  than  one  sev- 
enth of  the  Germans. 

The  defeat  of  the  French  at  Gravelotte  caused  Bazaine's 
army  to  retire  within  the  fortifications  of  Metz,  where  it 
was  besieged  by  a  portion  of  the  German  forces,  while  the 
remainder,  which  comprised  the  greater  part  of  the  First 
and  Second  Armies,  were  free  to  pursue  MacMahon,  whose 
army  was  reorganizing  at  Chalons,  reinforced  by  Failly's 
corps,  a  part  of  Felix  Douay's,  and  a  great  body  of  re- 
serves. Bazaine  made  several  ineffectual  attempts  to 
break  through  the  investing  forces,  and  finally  surrendered 
on  the  27th  of  October,  the  surrender  including  3  mar- 
shals, 66  generals,  6,000  officers,  and  173,000  men.  There 
were  delivered  up,  as  prizes  of  war,  400  pieces  of  artillery, 


BATTLE   OF  GRAVELOTTE. 


343 


lOO  mitrailleuses,  and  53  standards,  besides  the  amount  of 
small-arms  appropriate  to  the  strength  of  the  capitulated 
army.  The  battle  of  Gravelotte  carried  momentous 
consequences  in  its  result.  It  was  the  prelude  to  the 
fall  of  Sedan,  and  with  Sedan  fell  the  empire  of  Napoleon 
Third. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

BATTLE  AND  FALL  OF  SEDAN — 187O, 

As  soon  as  possible  Marshal  MacMahon  moved  north- 
ward from  Chalons  with  the  evident  intention  of  relieving 
Marshal  Bazaine,  but  he  was  intercepted  by  the  Germans, 
and  after  several  engagements  the  French  retreated  be- 
yond the  Meuse,  and  massed  at  Sedan  to  make  ready  for 
battle.  The  emperor  had  joined  MacMahon  at  Chalons, 
and  accompanied  him  to  Sedan,  though  he  left  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  to  the  marshal.  The  Germans  were 
between  MacMahon  and  Bazaine,  and  as  Bazaine  was  se- 
curely cooped  up  in  Metz,  the  army  of  MacMahon  was 
compelled  to  rely  upon  itself.  The  Germans  greatly  out- 
numbered the  French,  having  about  240,000  men,  while 
the  latter  mustered  not  much  more  than  150,000.  The 
German  plan  was  to  double  up  the  French  line  by  swing- 
ing round  upon  it  "  left  shoulder  forward  "  ;  it  was  ar- 
ranged at  the  Crown  Prince's  head-quarters,  and  like  all 
other  plans  of  the  Germans,  was  kept  a  rigid  secret  until 
the  movement  began. 

According  to  the  German  calculations,  it  was  believed 
that  by  making  extraordinary  efforts  in  marching,  the 
French  designs  of  relieving  Bazaine  at  Metz  might  be 
completely  overthrown  by  a  concentration  of  the  5th  and 
nth  Prussian  corps  with  the  Wurtemburgers  and  Bavari- 
ans. It  was  hardly  thought  that  it  would  be  possible  for 
the  6th  corps  to  swing  in  its  great  circle  to  the  westward, 
and  reach  the  battle-field  in  time  to  take  any  part  in  the  ac- 

344 


BATTLE  AND   FALL    OF  SEDAN.  345 

tion,  but,  nevertheless,  it  would  be  useful  in  protecting  the 
German  left  flank,  and  serving  as  a  support  in  case  the 
time  of  the  movement  should  be  protracted. 

It  was  unfortunate  for  the  French  that  they  had  no 
strong  corps  of  observation  southward  to  Vitry.  Had 
they  possessed  such  a  corps  from  80,000  to  100,000  strong, 
the  German  "wheel  around"  would  have  been  a  very 
risky  performance.  In  place  of  such  a  corps  there  were 
only  a  few  badly  organized  bodies  of  militia,  which  the 
Prussians  naturally  regarded  Avith  the  greatest  contempt. 
The  Crown  Prince  did  not  deign  to  give  them  the  least 
attention,  and  so  with  the  6th  corps  covering  his  left,  he 
swung  in  upon  Sedan. 

The  ground  near  Sedan  which  the  French  occupied  and 
defended  is  nearly  five  miles  in  extent  from  south  to 
north,  and  about  two  miles  from  east  to  west,  running 
into  a  narrow  point  toward  the  south.  The  fortress  of 
Sedan,  which  has  a  small  citadel  on  its  northeasterly  front, 
is  situated  in  low  ground  near  the  Meuse.  On  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  its  walls  extend  to  the  first  slopes  of  the 
higher  ground  where  the  old  entrenched  camp  was  located. 
Southeast  of  Sedan,  and  forming  a  suburb  of  it,  is  the 
village  of  Bazeilles.  It  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Meuse, 
and  on  low  ground.  After  passing  Bazeilles  to  the  north 
and  east,  we  find  ourselves  on  rising  ground.  The  slope 
is  at  first  gentle,  but  as  we  go  toward  the  north  it  becomes 
steeper,  and  thus  continues  to  the  summits  of  the  Ardennes, 
which  are  covered  with  wood.  The  broken  ground  on  the 
north,  where  the  battle  was  fought,  embraces  a  deep  valley 
or  ravine  that  has  steeply  sloping  sides,  and  a  general  di- 
rection from  north  to  south.  In  this  valley  are  the  vil- 
lages of  Moncelle,  Givonne,  and  Daigny.  To  the  north- 
west this  same  broken  ground  is  bordered  by  the  valley  of 
the  Illy,  a  small  rivulet  along  whose  banks  are  the  villages 
of  Illy  and  Floing.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Meuse 
there  is  a  strip  of  low   ground,  about   6,000  feet    broad, 


346  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

which  extends  from  Bazeilles  to  Sedan  along  the  river, 
and  on  the  left  bank  the  high  grounds  are  close  to  the 
edge  of  the  Meuse  from  Vadelincourt  to  Romilly.  The 
most  important  feature  of  the  battle-field,  so  far  as  its 
topography  is  concerned,  is  the  Bois  de  Garenne,  which  is 
about  3,000  yards  in  length  north  and  south,  by  2,000 
yards  broad.  Scattered  through  the  wood  are  several 
open  spaces.  From  Sedan  to  the  frontier  of  Belgium,  as 
the  crow  flies,  is  a  distance  of  about  seven  English  miles. 
The  correspondent  of  the  LoiidoJi  Daily  Neivs,  who  ac- 
companied the  Germans,  thus  describes  the  advance  to 
Sedan  : 

Hard  marching  it  was,  and  the  day  was  lovely.  The  bayo- 
nets of  the  infantry  glittered  in  the  sunshine.  The  valleys  full 
of  armed  men,  the  white  straight  roads  with  rumbling  trains  of 
artillery  and  great  masses  of  cavalry  far  to  the  front,  where  the 
first  patches  of  woodland  grew  indistinct  among  the  red  and 
brown  fields.  The  whole  country  southward  of  the  road  from 
Beaumont  to  LaChesse  is  alive  with  German  troops.  The  Ba- 
varians are  in  Beaumont.  The  4th  Prussian  corps  is  further  to 
the  right,  and  closely  round  upon  the  line  of  the  Meuse  ;  the 
5th  Prussian  corps  is  pushing  toward  Stonne  and  Chemery. 
Suddenly  flashes  of  artillery  are  seen  near  Beaumont.  Then 
an  active  cannonade  begins  on  the  distant  ridge  behind  that 
place.  The  ist  Bavarian  corps  has  surprised  a  French  divi- 
sion in  the  little  town,  capturing  a  good  deal  of  baggage.  White 
puffs  of  smoke  break  out  in  all  directions.  The  French  are 
replying.  There  is  evidently  a  sharp  struggle  on  our  right 
front  about  Beaumont,  and  Mouzon.  It  grows  fiercer,  and  the 
troops  bivouacked  on  the  hill  near  Stonne  are  eager  to  be 
among  the  combatants  ;  but  they  cannot  get  there  to-night,  but 
must  rest  in  their  position.  With  that  dull  rolling  and  grum- 
bling of  the  cannonade,  this  fight  was  the  preparation  for  the 
decisive  closing  in  of  August  31st. 

The  Germans  were  in  light  marching  order,  their  knap- 
sacks being    carried    in    wagons   which   followed    closely 


347 


348  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

behind  their  regiments.  They  were  weary,  and  hungry, 
and  thirsty,  but  they  pressed  on  without  complaint.  They 
presented  a  fine  appearance,  although  they  were  covered 
with  the  dust  which  rose  in  clouds  from  the  roads  along 
which  they  travelled.  Every  man  of  the  infantry,  cavalry, 
and  artillery,  seemed  to  understand  the  necessity  of  fast 
marching,  and  to  entertain  the  hope  that  a  victory  in  the 
battle  about  to  come  would  be  the  end  of  the  war.  The 
plan  had  not,  of  course,  been  unfolded  to  the  soldiers,  or 
even  to  any  but  the  highest  officers,  but  somehow  it 
seemed  to  be  understood  throughout  the  entire  army, 
rank  and  file,  that  a  great  and  decisive  battle  was  at  hand. 
It  was  an  enormous  half  circle  closing  in  to  make  a 
complete  circle  around  the  doomed  city  of  Sedan. 
On  the  hill  above  Donchery  was  the  Crown  Prince,  while 
the  5th  and  i  ith  Prussian  corps  were  pressing  to  the  north 
in  order  to  sweep  around  to  the  left.  The  6th  corps  is 
pressing  forward,  but  too  far  away  on  the  left  rear  to  come 
into  the  battle.  The  Wurtemburgers  who  are  consider- 
ably in  advance  of  the  6th  corps  also,  but  holding  the  left, 
will  have  better  fortune,  if  better  fortune  it  may  be  called, 
to  take  part  in  the  battle  and  suffer  severely.  The  mead- 
ows near  Sedan  have  been  artificially  flooded,  but  this 
flooding  will  be  no  serious  interruption  to  the  movements 
of  the  Prussians.  The  two  Bavarian  corps  are  on  the 
right  of  the  hill  above  Donchery.  The  ist  corps  of  the 
Bavarians  is  the  only  one  which  has  to  take  part  in  the 
great  battle.  Beyond  them  arc  the  troops  commanded  by 
the  Crown  Prince  of  Saxony,  the  6th  Saxon,  the  4th 
Prussian,  and  the  corps  of  Prussian  Guards.  The  circle  is 
steadily  closing  around  Sedan,  and  before  the  battle  begins 
in  full  vigor,  the  ring  will  be  complete.  As  there  are  two 
German  armies  present,  the  Third  Army  of  the  Crown 
Prince  of  Prussia,  and  the  "  combined  army  "  of  the  Crown 
Prince  of  Saxony,  King  William  takes  the  supreme  com- 
mand.    The  king  and  his  staff  make  their  head-quarters 


BATTLE   AMD  FALL    OF  SEDAN.  349 

on  some  high  ground  behind  the  position  of  the  Bavari- 
ans. Count  Bismarck  and  General  von  Moltke  remain 
with  the  Prince. 

In  the  battle  of  September  ist,  the  position  of  the 
French  army  was  peculiar.  It  was  posted  so  as  to  nearly 
surround  Sedan  at  a  general  distance  of  about  two  miles. 
Sedan  was  in  its  centre,  and  it  fronted  practically  to  all 
the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass.  Unfortunately,  the 
fortress  of  Sedan  was  poorly  supplied  with  provisions. 
The  fortress  was  not  properly  armed,  in  fact,  no  provision 
had  been  made  for  a  vigorous  defence,  and  especially  for 
a  siege.  Besides,  the  position  of  the  place  was  an  un- 
happy one.  Its  fortifications  were  built  long  before  any 
one  had  dreamt  of  the  range  of  modern  artillery,  and  it 
was  dominated  in  every  direction  by  high  ground,  from 
which  a  destructive  fire  could  be  poured  without  any  pos- 
sibility of  replying  to  it  with  effectiveness.  It  was  of  no 
advantage  whatever  to  the  French  army  in  any  thing  like 
an  aggressive  movement,  and  in  case  of  a  disaster,  it  was 
utterly  useless  as  a  rallying  point  for  retreating  troops. 
The  position  of  MacMahon  at  Sedan  was  certainly  not 
aggressive,  and  with  any  liberal  use  of  the  word  it  could 
hardly  be  called  defensive.  The  character  of  the  ground, 
the  position  and  condition  of  the  town  and  its  fortifica- 
tions, gave  every  advantage  to  the  Germans  with  a  total 
lack  of  advantage  to  the  French.  Every  line  of  retreat 
had  been  cut  off,  and  a  defeat  to  the  French  meant  an 
utterly  overwhelming  disaster  to  them. 

At  the  very  outset  of  the  battle,  Marshal  MacMahon  was 
severely  wounded  by  a  fragment  of  a  shell  which  exploded 
near  him,  and  his  wound  compelled  him  to  give  up  the 
command.  For  several  reasons  the  wounding  of  Marshal 
MacMahon  thus  early  in  the  day  was  a  terrible  misfortune 
to  the  French.  He  was  greatly  beloved  by  the  soldiers, 
and  their  confidence  in  him  was  implicit ;  consequently  the 
information    that  he  was  wounded,  caused  a  general  de- 


350  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

spondency.  Furthermore,  he  had  not  confided  his  plan 
of  battle  to  any  one ;  even  the  orders  which  he  had  issued 
for  the  movements  of  the  morning  did  not  reveal  his 
plans ;  consequently,  when  he  was  carried  back  to  Sedan, 
all  the  high  officers  were  entirely  ignorant  of  his  intentions. 
The  marshal  gave  the  command  of  the  army  to  General 
Ducrot,  who  was  not  the  senior  general  then  on  the  ground. 
That  honor  belonged  to  General  De  WimpfTen,  who  had 
arrived  only  two  days  before  from  Algeria,  and  was  conse- 
quently not  acquainted  with  the  army  and  its  condition. 
An  eye-witness  says : 

This  arbitrary  act  of  passing  over  General  De  Wimpffen 
was  destined  to  exercise  the  most  baneful  influence  on  the 
whole  course  of  the  action,  more  as  since  the  strategical  views 
of  Ducrot  and  De  Wimpffen,  on  which  the  tactical  conduct  of 
the  battle  depended,  were  altogether  at  variance. 

General  Ducrot  took  command  at  7.30  A.M.,  and  imme- 
diately ordered  the  whole  army  to  concentrate  at  Illy  to 
force  its  way  to  Mezieres.  While  the  movement  was  being 
executed,  General  De  Wimpffen,  acting  on  his  orders  from 
the  war  ministry,  assumed  command  and  ordered  the 
troops  back  to  their  old  position,  which  they  reached  about 
10  A.M.  The  time  lost  in  these  movements  was  admir- 
ably utilized  by  the  Germans.  They  closed  up  both  wings 
of  the  French  army  and  removed  the  last  chance  of  forcing 
a  passage  through  their  lines  in  any  direction  whatever. 
And  furthermore,  these  changes  of  command  and  these 
advance  and  retrograde  movements  had  a  bad  effect  on 
the  French  troops.  A  feeling  of  insecurity  was  engendered, 
the  men  lost  their  courage,  and  ultimately  they  refused 
to  obey  their  commanders  and  rebelled  against  any  author- 
ity whatever. 

The  first  Bavarian  corps  near  Bazeilles  was  in  front  of 
the  right  wing  of  the  French,  which  consisted  of  the  12th 
corps,  ranging  along  from  Bazeilles,   Balan,  and  La  Mon- 


BATTLE  AND  FALL    OF  SEDAN.  35 1 

celle,  with  its  front  toward  the  south.  North  of  this  posi- 
tion,  the  high  ground  and  also  the  bottom  of  the  valley 
at  Givonne  and  Daigny  was  held  by  the  ist  French 
corps,  who  were  faced  by  the  12th  Prussian  corps  and  the 
Prussian  Guards.  The  portion  of  the  line  at  Illy  was  held 
by  the  7th  corps,  who  were  supported  by  the  1  ith  and  5th 
corps.  Later  in  the  day,  in  the  centre  and  rear  of  the 
French  position,  the  5th  corps  was  posted  to  serve  as  a  re- 
serve that  might  be  moved  in  any  direction.  To  guard 
against  any  attempt  of  the  French  to  force  a  way  out  of 
Sedan  toward  the  south,  the  2d  Bavarian  corps,  which  had 
its  own  artillery,  and  that  of  the  ist  corps,  stood  in  the 
way.  The  4th  German  corps  was  held  in  reserve  in  the 
early  part  of  the  day,  but  was  brought  into  the  battle  be- 
fore it  ended.  One  division  of  the  4th  corps  was  sent  to 
Bazeilles  to  support  the  Bavarians,  while  the  other  division 
stood  in  reserve  at  Mairy.  Altogether,  for  attacking  the 
principal  points  of  the  French  line,  the  Germans  had  a 
much  larger  number  of  men  than  their  antagonists. 

The  battle  was  opened  by  the  Bavarians.  It  was  in- 
tended to  begin  the  fire  at  daylight,  and  General  Von  der 
Tann,  who  commanded  the  ist  Bavarian  corps,  was  all 
ready  for  action  with  the  first  streak  of  daylight,  but  a 
thick  fog  hung  over  the  valley  of  the  Meuse  and  prevent- 
ed the  tactical  action  which  he  intended.  During  the 
night,  General  Von  der  Tann  had  sent  his  artillery  to  the 
left  bank  of  the  Meuse  while  the  principal  part  of  his 
corps  bivouacked  between  Romilly  and  Augecourt.  He 
had  been  instructed  to  attack  Bazeilles,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  the  French  without  giving  battle,  the  great 
fear  being  that  the  French,  knowing  the  numerical  supe- 
riority of  their  antagonists,  would  attempt  to  retire  from 
Sedan  before  the  lines  around  it  could  be  completed.  The 
Bavarian  vanguard  advanced  at  4  A.M.  and  thirty  minutes 
later  it  was  in  possession  of  the  Romilly  station  south  of 
Bazeilles.     On  passing  to  the  village  they  found  that  the 


352  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

French  held  it  in  force.  When  the  fog  that  had  been 
hanging  over  the  valley  lifted  a  little  about  six  o'clock,  the 
Bavarians  were  discovered  and  the  French  artillery  opened 
a  heavy  fire  upon  them.  The  fire  was  rapid  and  well  di- 
rected, and  it  caused  much  havoc  among  the  Bavarians 
while  they  advanced  over  the  cleared  ground  in  front  of 
Bazeilles.  Report  having  been  received  that  a  serious 
engagement  was  going  on  at  Bazeilles, the  emperor  and  Mar- 
shal MacMahon  started  immediately  in  the  direction  of  that 
village.  On  the  way  thither  the  marshal  was  wounded,  as  pre- 
viously stated,  and  obliged  to  leave  the  field.  The  emperor 
examined  the  position  at  Bazeilles,  and  being  satisfied 
that  his  troops  could  maintain  themselves,  then  proceeded 
to  make  a  tour  of  inspection  along  the  whole  line,  partly 
for  his  own  information  and  partly  to  encourage  the  sol- 
diers by  his  personal  presence. 

The  fighting  at  Bazeilles  continued  steady  from  6  A.M., 
the  German  vanguard  being  reinforced  by  the  main  body 
of  the  1st  Bavarian  division,  and  afterwards  by  the  2d 
division.  The  French  commander  held  his  position  gal- 
lantly, and  was  greatly  astonished  when,  about  8  A.M.,  he 
received  orders  from  General  Ducrot  to  move  his  com- 
mand towards  Illy.  He  protested  against  the  ordfer  as 
most  unwise,  for  the  double  reason  that  Bazeilles  was  an 
important  position,  and  that  a  retreat  in  the  middle  of  a 
battle  would  be  demoralizing  to  the  troops.  General 
Ducrot  explained  that  it  was  an  imperative  necessity,  and 
the  march  must  begin  at  once  with  all  the  forces  not  actual- 
ly engaged  in  defending  Bazeilles.  The  emperor,  returning 
from  an  examination  of  the  position  at  Moncelle,  met 
these  very  troops  that  he  had  seen  shortly  before  strongly 
posted,  and  asked  General  Ducrot  what  this  new  movement 
meant.  The  latter  answered  :  "  The  enemy  is  only  amusing 
us  at  Bazeilles  ;  the  real  battle  will  be  fought  at  Illy."  Not 
wishing  to  interfere  with  General  Ducrot's  plans,  the 
emperor  said  nothing.     It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Gen- 


354  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

eral  De  Wimpffen  assumed  command  and  sent  the  troops 
back  to  their  old  positions. 

The  attack  on  Bazeilles  was  vigorously  pushed  and  as 
vigorousl)'  defended.  Three  times  the  Bavarians  stormed 
it  only  to  be  beaten  back  ;  the  Germans  alleged  that  the 
inhabitants  joined  in  the  fighting,  firing  out  of  loopholed 
houses  and  from  cellars,  and  perpetrating  atrocious  bar- 
barities on  the  wounded  Bavarians  who  were  left  behind 
after  each  repulse.  The  French  denied  the  German  alle- 
gations, and  accused  their  opponents  of  wanton  cruelty  in 
mercilessly  slaughtering  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  village 
who  fell  into  their  hands.  After  the  war  there  was  much 
controvers}'  on  the  subject,  the  French  declaring  that  of 
nearly  2,000  inhabitants  scarcely  50  remained  alive.  In 
July,  1 87 1,  General  Von  der  Tann  ofificially  declared  that 
the  number  of  deaths  had  been  grossly  exaggerated ;  he 
denied  the  cruelties  charged  against  the  Germans,  and  said 
there  had  been  much  provocation  on  the  part  of  the  in- 
habitants. Probably  the  truth  lies  between  the  extremes ; 
this  much  is  certain, — that  Bazeilles  was  burned,  but 
whether  set  on  fire  by  shell  or  torch  is  not  positively 
known.  Driven  out  by  the  flames,  the  French  retired 
from  the  village,  but  continued  their  resistance  in  the 
neighboring  fields  and  gardens  and  on  the  contiguous 
hills.     By  10  A.M.  Bazeilles  was  destroyed. 

The  vanguard  of  the  12th  German  corps  engaged  the 
1 2th  French  corps  at  La  Moncelle,  farther  on  to  the  right. 
A  little  past  six  o'clock,  the  principal  part  of  the  corps 
piled  its  knapsacks  on  the  ground,  leaving  them  in  charge 
of  a  guard,  by  whom  they  were  subsequently  placed  in 
wagons,  and  then  marched  up  the  high  road  from  Douzay. 
They  left  the  road,  turning  at  La  Rulle  to  the  right,  and 
a  little  past  seven  o'clock  came  in  at  the  position  assigned 
them.  The  French  did  not  seem  to  be  in  force  at  La 
Moncelle,  and  consequently  there  was  not  much  opposi- 
tion to  the  advancing  Germans.     The  latter  fortified  the 


BATTLE  AND  FALL    OF  SEDAN.  355 

village  as  soon  as  they  took  possession,  and  opened  fire 
with  one  battery  of  artillery  upon  the  long  lines  rf  the 
French  that  were  drawn  up  on  the  heights  to  the  west. 
As  soon  as  the  fire  was  opened  the  French  responded  with 
five  batteries.  In  half  an  hour  three  other  German  batteries 
came  up,  and  the  fight  became  more  equal.  Immediately 
following  this  artillery  fight,  strong  bodies  of  Zouaves  and 
Turcos  from  the  first  French  corps  attacked  the  German 
lines,  but  were  driven  back'.  When  the  advance  of  the 
division  L'Artignes  were  crossing  the  valley  of  Daigny, 
the  Saxons  were  already  in  possession  of  the  wood.  The 
Saxon  supports  came  up  rapidly  and  gave  sufificient 
strength  for  an  ofTensive  movement.  The  Saxons  steadily 
pushed  on  towards  the  edge  of  the  valley.  There  was  a 
sharp  fight  at  Daigny,  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of 
200  Zouaves,  3  mitrailleuses,  and  3  guns.  The  Saxons 
halted  at  Daigny  because  their  ammunition  was  running 
low,  and  the  ammunition  wagons  were  too  far  in  the  rear 
to  enable  them  to  get  a  fresh  supply  immediately.  They 
held  on  to  their  position  until  ten  o'clock,  when  the 
batteries  of  the  Prussian  Guards  came  up,  formed  in  line 
with  them,  and  thus  gave  them  relief. 

While  this  was  going  on,  the  French  were  pushing  the 
Bavarians  severely,  and  there  was  great  fear  that  the 
French  would  succeed  in  breaking  through  the  German 
lines  between  Montvillc  and  La  Moncelle.  The  Bavarian 
commander  sent  a  request  for  the  Saxons  to  come  to  his 
aid.  The  latter  complied  with  the  request,  and  not  a 
moment  too  soon.  Just  in  time  they  closed  the  gap  be- 
tween their  own  left  and  the  right  of  the  Bavarians.  The 
French  made  another  furious  attack,  but  were  repulsed 
by  the  artillery  and  several  divisions  of  infantry  that  were 
brought  forward  by  ten  o'clock  or  a  little  later.  The  en- 
tire valley  of  the  Givonne,  the  Bazeilles  rivulet,  and  the 
rivulet  between  Bazeilles  and  Daigny,  had  been  given  up 
by  the  French  and  occupied  by  the  Saxons  and  Bavarians. 


35^  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

This  side  of  the  Hne  was  now  considered  perfectly  secure. 
There  was  no  fear  that  the  French  could  force  a  passage, 
and  there  was  no  evidence  that  they  intended  to  make 
an  attempt  farther  to  the  north.  The  Prussian  Guards 
were  steadily  forcing  back  the  first  corps  of  the  French. 

The  advance  of  the  two  infantry  divisions  of  the  Prus- 
sian Guards  arrived  late  at  night  on  the  31st  August,  near 
Pouru  St.  Reny  and  Pouru  au  Bois,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  main  body  of  the  corps  came  to  a  halt  northward  of 
Carignan.  At  five  in  the  morning  of  September  ist  they 
moved  out  in  two  columns,  the  right  advancing  on  Villers 
Cernay,  and  the  left  on  Francheval.  At  Villers  Cernay 
they  encountered  the  French  line,  and  having  brought 
their  artillery  into  position  on  the  high  ground  above  the 
Givonne  rivulet,  they  opened  fire  upon  a  body  of  cavalry 
and  a  number  of  trains  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley. 
A  few  shells,  not  over  a  dozen  probabl)^  suf^ced  to  throw 
both  cavalry  and  trains  into  a  panic.  Wagons  and  horses 
stampeded  in  all  directions,  and  the  wildest  confusion 
followed. 

The  other  division  moved  toward  the  southward,  and 
at  nine  o'clock  went  to  support  the  Saxon  troops  in  the 
vicinity  of  Daigny.  As  already  stated,  another  division 
of  the  Prussian  Guards  remained  in  reserve.  It  was  about 
10.30  A.M.  when  the  Saxons  and  Guards  together  took 
possession  of  Daigny  and  captured  a  considerable  number 
of  prisoners.  About  this  time  the  French  were  making 
the  retrograde  movement  on  Illy,  in  accordance  with 
General  Ducrot's  order. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  confused  movements  of  the 
French  in  consequence  of  the  difference  of  opinion  be- 
tween Ducrot  and  De  Wimpffen  proved  of  great  advantage 
to  the  Germans.  By  the  time  the  French  returned  from 
the  movement  upon  Illy,  the  Saxons  and  Bavarians  with 
the  Prussian  Guards  had  obtained  firm  possession  of  the  val- 
ley of  the  Givonne.     The  best  that  the  French  could  then 


BATTLE  AND   FALL    OF  SEDAN.  357 

do  was  to  take  position  on  the  high  ground  beyond  the 
west  bank  of  the  valley,  the  artillery  in  front  and  the  in- 
fantry lying  down  to  the  rear  of  the  artillery  line.  The 
position  was  a  bad  one,  as  it  was  under  the  direct  fire  of 
the  Saxon,  Bavarian,  and  Prussian  artillery,  whose  guns 
were  much  more  numerous  and  of  greater  weight  of 
metal,  but  it  was  also  enfiladed  on  the  right  by  several 
batteries  posted  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Meuse.  The 
French  losses  by  the  artillery  fire  were  very  heavy,  and 
increased  so  rapidly  as  to  threaten  a  panic  among  the 
troops.  The  Emperor  Napoleon  rode  through  the  battle- 
field towards  Sedan  about  ten  o'clock,  in  order  to  consult 
with  Marshal  MacMahon,  in  case  the  condition  of  the 
marshal's  wound  would  allow  a  consultation.  General 
De  Wimpffen  rode  out  to  the  front  and  was  soon  con- 
vinced that  the  enemy's  barrier  of  artillery  was  too  strong 
to  be  broken  down  or  forced.  Finding  that  the  7th  corps 
had  lost  very  heavily,  he  abandoned  the  thought  of  break- 
ing the  German  line,  and  sought  only  to  hold  his  position 
until  nightfall,  when  fortune  might  give  an  opportunity 
for  the  retreat  of  a  portion  at  least  of  his  army. 

The  nth  corps,  forming  part  of  the  German  left  wing, 
was  moving  on  the  evening  of  August  31st  to  occupy 
Donchery.  Early  on  the  morning  of  the  next  day  it  was 
ordered  to  take  up  a  position  that  would  prevent  the  pos- 
sibility of  a  French  retreat  upon  Mezieres.  The  move- 
ment began  a  little  before  six  o'clock,  and  the  whole  corps 
was  very  soon  to  the  north  of  Donchery,  and  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Meuse.  About  nine  o'clock  it  encountered 
the  French  pickets  which  were  along  the  high  ground 
around  St.  Manges.  The  pickets  were  easily  driven  in 
and  the  ground  occupied.  Then  the  corps  advanced  to 
Floing,  through  the  narrow  defile  of  St.  Albert.  Floing 
was  already  occupied  by  the  5th  corps,  and  as  there  was 
no  room  for  the  two  to  march  abreast,  the  i  ith  corps  halted. 
The  French  had  a  strong  position  on  the  Plateau  d'Algerie. 


358  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

The  wings  of  the  French  position  touched  the  villages  oi 
Illy  and  Floing,  while  the  line  between  them  had  steep 
sides  to  the  valley  directly  in  its  front.  The  7th  French 
corps  and  two  reserve  cavalry  divisions  occupied  this 
plateau. 

The  Bois  de  Garenne,  which  was  in  the  rear  of  the 
right  wing  of  this  part  of  the  French  line,  was  occupied 
by  a  strong  force,  which  was  intended  to  maintain  con- 
nection with  the  first  corps.  The  artillery  of  the  5th 
and  iith  corps  opened  fire  on  this  wood,  which  was 
crowded  with  French  troops,  among  whom  great  havoc 
was  caused  by  the  German  guns.  Several  times  the 
French  brought  batteries  to  the  edge  of  the  wood,  and 
attempted  to  reply  ;  but  every  battery  that  came  thus  to 
the  front  was  immediately  silenced  by  the  concentrated 
fire  of  the  German  batteries.  A  French  of^cer  who  was 
taken  prisoner  described  the  German  fire  as  "  five  kilo- 
metres of  artillery."  General  De  Wimpffen's  line  of  bat- 
tle had  now  assumed  the  very  rare  condition  along  its 
east  front  of  being  broken  into  two  portions  that  fronted 
in  nearly  opposite  directions. 

Let  us  now  return  to  the  right  wing  of  the  German 
army,  which  we  left  soon  after  ten  o'clock.  When  the 
sound  of  the  cannonade  in  the  direction  of  Illy  reached 
the  Prussian  Guards,  the  generals  concluded  that  the 
turning  columns  in  that  direction  had  closed  the  line  of 
battle.  Prince  Augustus,  of  Wiirtemberg,  who  com- 
manded the  Prussian  Guards,  ordered  the  artillery  fire  to 
be  opened  on  the  Bois  de  Garenne,  which  was  vigorously 
assaulted  over  nearly  its  whole  extent.  All  the  troops 
which  the  French  had  assembled  there  were  compelled  to 
stay  inside  the  wood.  As  soon  as  a  column  made  its  ap- 
pearance anywhere  at  the  edge  of  the  wood  it  was  cut 
down  by  the  German  fire.  Then  an  advance  of  the 
Guards  was  ordered,  so  that  every  possibility  of  an  escape 
of  the  French  in  the  direction  of  Belgium  wvis  completely 


BATTLE   AND   FALL    OF   SEDAN.  359 

2ut  off.  An  order  was  sent  for  the  Ba\an'ans  to  advance  ; 
but  in  consequence  of  their  terrible  losses  at  Bazeilles 
they  were  not  in  condition  for  the  offensive,  and  were  un- 
able to  occupy  Daigny.  The  order  was  then  given  to  the 
Saxons,  who  executed  it  in  fine  style,  and  advanced  later 
on  to  Fond  de  Givonne  in  the  rear  of  the  Guards. 

The  position  of  the  right  wing  of  the  French,  which  was 
personally  commanded  by  General  De  Wimpffen,  was  now 
perfectly  hopeless.  As  a  last  resort  he  sent  a  request  to  the 
emperor  to  come  and  lead  the  troops  in  person,  as  they 
would  consider  it  an  honor  to  cut  a  way  for  him  through 
the  German  lines.  The  emperor  was  unwilling  to  sacrifice 
the  hves  of  so  many  soldiers  in  order  to  save  himself,  and 
therefore  he  declined  the  invitation.  General  De  Wimpf- 
fen then  went  over  to  Balan  to  find  whatever  troops  there 
might  be  remaining  from  the  12th  and  ist  corps  ;  but  none 
could  be  found.  He  was  alone,  unaccompanied  by  a  single 
staff  officer,  and  then  rode  to  the  gate  of  Sedan  in  the 
hope  of  being  able  to  rally  some  of  the  disordered  troops. 
General  Ducrot  proposed  to  make  a  last  effort  to  cut 
through  the  German  lines,  and  for  this  purpose  ordered  a 
general  charge  of  cavalr)\ 

Margueritte's  reserve  cavalry  division  (the  4th)  was 
selected  ;  it  advanced  by  echelons  east  of  Floing  and  was 
intended  to  overthrow  everything  before  it,  after  which  it 
would  fall  to  the  right  and  double  up  the  enemy's  line.  The 
charge  was  as  gallant  as  that  of  the  French  cavalry  at 
Waterloo — and  as  unfortunate  ;  it  swept  on  like  a  tornado, 
but  never  reached  the  German  lines.  The  artillery  and 
infantry  mowed  great  sw^aths  in  the  advancing  columns, 
and  covered  the  ground  with  the  fallen  heroes.  Three 
times  was  the  charge  made  and  three  times  repulsed. 
The  dead  and  wounded  actually  lay  in  heaps  in  front  rif 
the  German  lines. 

Ducrot's  effort  to  save  the  diiy  was  a  failure,  and  the 
cavalry  had  been  sacrificed.     Then  he  ordered  the  infantry 


360  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

to  make  the  same  dash  for  liberty,  but  utterly  disheart- 
ened and  worn  out  with  fatigue,  they  refused  to  obey  his 
orders. 

It  was  now  three  o'clock  and  a  great  stream  of  fugitives 
had  been  for  some  time  flowing  to  the  town.  General 
Ducrot  rode  there  too,  in  order  to  get  a  few  more  troops 
together,  but  when  he  saw  the  state  of  things  there  he 
abandoned  all  hope.  The  streets  and  squares  throughout 
the  town  were  packed  with  all  kinds  of  wagons,  gun  car- 
riages, caissons,  etc.,  and  crowded  with  terror-stricken  men 
who  had  thrown  away  their  guns  and  were  intent  only  on 
finding  shelter  and  food,  with  safety  for  their  lives.  All 
discipline  was  gone,  and  evidently  the  defeat  of  the  French 
was  complete  and  crushing. 

A  French  officer  who  was  with  the  army  in  Sedan  thus 
describes  the  state  of  affairs  in  the  town  near  the  end  of 
the  battle  : 

Meanwhile  shells  were  flying  in  the  direction  of  our  street 
and  hotel.  Everybody  stood  under  the  vaulted  stone  entrance 
as  the  safest  place  of  shelter.  While  we  waited,  watching 
patiently  for  the  shells  which  might  have  sent  us  altogether 
into  another  world,  General  De  Wimpffen  came  past  making  a 
vain  effort  to  rally  and  inspirit  his  fleeing  troops.  He  shouted, 
Vive  la  France  !  e?i  avant !  but  there  was  no  reply.  He  cried 
out  that  Bazaine  was  attacking  the  Prussians  in  the  rear.  This 
news,  which  had  been  current  all  the  morning,  coming  from 
the  mouth  of  General  De  WimpfTen,  came  to  be  believed,  and 
a  few  thousand  men  were  rallied  and  followed  him  out  of  the 
tow^n.  People  began  to  have  hope,  and  for  one  brief  moment 
we  believed  the  day  might  be  saved.  Need  I  say  that  this  in- 
telligence was  a  patriotic  falsehood  of  the  brave  general,  made 
with  anguish;  and,  in  direct  opposition  of  the  emperor's  orders, 
he  had  resolved  to  rally  what  men  he  could  and  make  a  stand. 
He  could  not  have  known  that  he  was  bound  in  the  grasp  of 
at  least  300,000  men.  The  bugle  and  trumpet  ring  out  on  all 
sides>.  a  few  thousand  men  hearken  to  the  sound.     They  went 


362  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

out  at  the  Port  de  Balan.  The  houses  of  the  suburb  were 
already  full  of  Prussians,  who  fired  on  the  French  out  of  every 
window.  The  church  especially  is  thoroughly  garrisoned,  the 
heavy  doors  are  closed.  The  general  sent  an  officer  to  fetch 
two  pieces  of  cannon.  These  soon  arrived,  and  with  them  the 
door  of  the  church  is  blown  in.  Two  hundred  Prussians  are 
captured  and  brought  back  with  the  French,  who,  in  spite  of 
all  their  efforts,  are  forced  to  retire  again  into  the  town.  It 
was  the  last  incident  of  the  battle — the  last  struggle. 

By  four  in  the  afternoon  the  Germans  were  masters  of 
the  situation  and  the  defeat  of  the  French  was  absolutely 
certain.  The  Germans  had  contracted  their  circle  close 
around  Sedan,  their  artillery  held  possession  of  all  the 
heights,  and  it  was  in  their  power  to  destroy  the  town 
and  the  army  at  pleasure  if  only  their  ammunition  held 
out. 

The  battle  of  Sedan  was  chiefly  carried  on  with 
artillery,  in  which  the  Germans  were  superior  in  numbers, 
weight,  range,  and  precision.  The  field,  after  the  surren- 
der, presented  a  worse  spectacle  than  any  other  of  the 
war,  owing  to  the  terrible  work  of  the  artillery. 

The  impossibility  of  further  assistance  was  evident,  and 
the  white  flag  was  displayed  from  the  walls  of  Sedan. 
Immediately  the  German  fire  ceased  and  the  negotiations 
for  surrender  began.  At  first  General  De  Wimpffen  re- 
fused the  terms  offered,  but  on  the  next  day,  September 
2d,  he  signed  the  capitulation  of  Sedan,  and  the  whole 
army,  including  the  emperor,  who  became  a  prisoner  of 
war.  In  his  interview  with  the  king  the  emperor  was 
downcast  but  disrnified.  From  Sedan  he  was  sent  to  the 
castle  of  Wilhelmshohe,  near  Cassel,  and  so  ended  his 
career  as  ruler  of  France.  Two  days  later  came  the  revo- 
lution in  Paris,  the  overthrow  of  the  empire,  the  flight  of 
the  empress,  and  the  formation  of  the  republic. 

About  25,000  prisoners  were  taken  during  the 
battle  of    Sedan,  and  83,000  surrendered  the  next    day. 


BATTLE  AND  FALL    OF  SEDAN.  363 

Among  the  captured  material  of  war  were  400  pieces 
of  field  artillery,  150  fortress  guns,  and  70  mitrailleuses. 
About  14,000  French  wounded  were  found  lying  in  Sedan 
and  in  the  neighborhood,  and  3,000  French  escaped  into 
Belgium,  and  laid  down  their  arms.  The  great  Army  of 
the  North  thus  passed  out  of  existence. 

Amongst  the  prisoners  there  were  i  marshal  (MacMa- 
hon),  40  generals,  230  field-oflficers,  and  2,595  ofificers  of 
other  grades. 

The  losses  of  the  Germans  were  : 

1,310  killed, 

6,443  wounded, 

2,107  missing. 


Total  9,860. 

The  losses  of  the  French  according  to  their  own  state- 
ments were,  exclusive  of  prisoners  and  missing, 
3,000  killed, 
10,000  wounded. 


Total   13,000. 

The  strategical  feat  of  the  Germans  by  which  an  army 
of  more  than  200,000  men  made  a  wonderfully  accurate 
"  wheel  to  the  right  "  by  means  of  which  the  entire  force 
was  concentrated  after  a  march  of  four  days  on  a  point 
upwards  of  47  miles  from  where  the  left  wing  previously 
stood,  is  probably  without  a  parallel  in  inilitary  history. 

The  result  of  the  battle  of  Gravelotte  was  to  imprison 
Bazaine's  army  in  Metz,  where  it  remained  until  its  sur- 
render. The  imprisonment  of  Bazaine's  army  made  pos- 
sible the  capture  of  Sedan  with  the  forces  under  MacMa- 
hon,  the  surrender  of  the  emperor,  the  fall  of  the  empire, 
the  advance  upon  the  French  capital,  the  siege  and  capture 
of  Paris,  and  the  great  triumph  of  the  German  army.  At 
Versailles,  on  the  1st  of  January,  1871,  King  William  of 
Prussia  was  proclaimed  Emperor  of  Germany  amid  the  roar 


3^4 


DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 


of  the  cannon  by  which  haughty  Paris  was  reduced  to 
humiliation.  Two  months  later  the  war  came  to  an  end 
with  the  preliminary  treaty  of  peace,  and  on  the  loth  of 
May  was  signed  the  definitive  treaty  by  which  France  sur- 
rendered portions  of  her  territory  to  the  conquerors,  and 
paid  an  indemnity  of  five  milliards  of  francs  for  the  ex- 
penses of  the  war. 


W^    70 


CHAPTER  XX. 


FALL   OF    KHIVA — 1 873. 


While  England  has  been  pursuing  a  career  of  conquest 
in  the  great  Indian  peninsula  and  adjacent  countries, 
Russia  has  been  doing  likewise  in  Northern  Asia.  Yermak, 
a  Cossack  chief,  crossed  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  invaded 
Siberia  in  1580  ;  nineteen  years  later  was  formed  the  East 
India  Company,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  the  present 
British  Empire  in  India.  England's  course  of  conquest 
has  carried  her  arms  to  the  northward,  while  those  of 
Russia  have  steadily  pushed  to  the  south.  Now  they 
confront  each  other  on  the  plains  and  among  the  moun- 
tains of  Afghanistan,  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  in 
the  past  few  years  a  hostile  encounter  has  been  imminent. 

In  her  southward  march  over  the  plains  of  Central  Asia, 
Russia  successfully  conquered  numerous  tribes  and  khan- 
ates of  greater  or  less  importance,  and  in  most  instances 
the  conquests  were  bloodless.  The  Russians  are  superior 
to  the  British  in  their  knowledge  of  Oriental  character  and 
Oriental  ways  of  dealing;  and  for  this  reason  they  are 
often  able  to  accomplish  by  diplomacy  what  the  latter  can 
only  gain  by  fighting.  Having  a  good  deal  of  the  Asiatic 
in  their  composition,  they  are  better  fitted  than  any  other 
European  people  for  dealing  with  the  inhabitants  of  that 
part  of  the  world,  which  has  been  claimed  to  be  the  cradle 
of  the  human  race.  The  Russians  usually  try  diplomacy 
before  resorting  to  arms,  but  the  arms  are  generally  close 
at  hand  during  the  negotiations,  and  whenever  they  are 
needed  there  is  no  delay  in  their  use. 

365 


CHAPTER  XX. 


FALL   OF    KHIVA — 1 873. 


While  England  has  been  pursuing  a  career  of  conquest 
in  the  great  Indian  peninsula  and  adjacent  countries, 
Russia  has  been  doing  likewise  in  Northern  Asia.  Yermak, 
a  Cossack  chief,  crossed  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  invaded 
Siberia  in  1580  ;  nineteen  years  later  was  formed  the  East 
India  Company,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  the  present 
British  Empire  in  India.  England's  course  of  conquest 
has  carried  her  arms  to  the  northward,  while  those  of 
Russia  have  steadily  pushed  to  the  south.  Now  they 
confront  each  other  on  the  plains  and  among  the  moun- 
tains of  Afghanistan,  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  in 
the  past  few  years  a  hostile  encounter  has  been  imminent. 

In  her  southward  march  over  the  plains  of  Central  Asia, 
Russia  successfully  conquered  numerous  tribes  and  khan- 
ates of  greater  or  less  importance,  and  in  most  instances 
the  conquests  were  bloodless.  The  Russians  are  superior 
to  the  British  in  their  knowledge  of  Oriental  character  and 
Oriental  ways  of  dealing;  and  for  this  reason  they  are 
often  able  to  accomplish  by  diplomacy  what  the  latter  can 
only  gain  by  fighting.  Having  a  good  deal  of  the  Asiatic 
in  their  composition,  they  are  better  fitted  than  any  other 
European  people  for  dealing  with  the  inhabitants  of  that 
part  of  the  world,  which  has  been  claimed  to  be  the  cradle 
of  the  human  race.  The  Russians  usually  try  diplomacy 
before  resorting  to  arms,  but  the  arms  are  generally  close 
at  hand  during  the  negotiations,  and  whenever  they  are 
needed  there  is  no  delay  in  their  use. 

365 


366  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

The  khanate  of  Khiva  resisted  both  the  diplomacy  and 
the  arms  of  Russia  until  a  very  recent  period.  It  occu- 
pied an  area  of  about  200,000  square  miles  in  the  great 
plain  of  Turkestan,  but  of  this  area  only  a  small  part  was 
under  cultivation  or  capable  of  being  cultivated.  The  chief 
oasis  in  which  the  capital  Khiva  is  situated,  stretches  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Atnou  Darya  or  Oxus,  about  two  hundred 
miles  along  its  banks,  and  is  watered  by  canals  drawn  from 
that  stream.  This  fertile  area  is  about  3,000  square  miles 
in  extent,  and  has  a  population  of  a  quarter  of  a  million. 
Geographically  Khiva  is  of  no  great  importance,  but  it  has 
a  prominent  place  in  the  political  world,  and  the  events  of 
1873  drew  towards  it  the  attention  of  all  nations.  Russia 
had  long  sought  to  possess  the  khanate,  but,  protected 
by  the  desert  sands  that  surround  them,  the  Khivans 
were  able  to  bid  defiance  to  their  northern  enemies. 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  the  first  expedition  for 
this  purpose  actually  succeeded  in  conquering  the  khan- 
ate and  holding  it  for  two  or  three  months.  It  was  or- 
ganized and  conducted  by  a  chieftain  of  the  Yaik  or  Ural 
Cossacks,  and  was  simply  a  plundering  expedition  on  a 
large  scale.  Finding  the  Khan  unprepared  for  war,  the 
chieftain  drove  him  out,  seized  his  capital,  and  took  pos- 
session of  his  treasure  and  his  wives.  The  Cossack  de- 
clared himself  khan,  ruled  the  country,  converted  the 
Khan's  favorite  wife  to  Christianity  and  married  her.  But 
finding,  after  ten  or  twelve  weeks  of  power,  that  the  Khan 
was  assembling  an  army  to  re-conquer  his  capital,  the 
Cossack  determined  to  retreat  to  the  Urals,  and  started 
with  a  large  caravan  loaded  with  plunder.  The  Cossacks 
were  overtaken  by  the  Khan,  and  so  severely  were  they 
handled  that  only  five  or  six  escaped  alive  to  the  Urals. 
The  Cossack  chieftain  killed  his  newly  converted  bride  when 
he  saw  that  escape  was  hopeless,  and  then  died  fighting 
among  a  heap  of  slain  Khivans  who  had  fallen  beneath  his 
sword. 


FALL    OF  KHLVA.  367 

Two  similar  freebooting  expeditions  were  undertaken 
by  Cossacks,  but  both  were  disastrous.  One  of  them 
made  a  dash  upon  Kuna-Urgench,  whence  they  carried  off 
about  one  thousand  Khivan  women,  whom  they  wanted 
for  wives,  together  with  other  booty.  The  Khan  overtook 
them  on  their  retreat,  and  slew  the  invaders  to  almost  the 
last  man.  The  other  expedition  was  met  about  half  way 
across  the  desert  and  forced  to  retire  after  heavy  loss. 

Peter  the  Great  sent  an  expedition  against  Khiva  in 
1717.  It  was  composed  of  about  4,000  regular  and  irregu- 
lar troops,  and  attempted  to  cross  the  desert  in  the  mid- 
dle of  summer.  About  one  fourth  of  the  number  died  of 
illness  on  the  way,  and  the  rest,  greatly  worn  out,  were 
slaughtered  by  the  Khan's  army  almost  in  sight  of  the  mua 
walls  of  the  capital.  Of  the  whole  4,000  who  started  only 
40  escaped,  and  thus  ended  the  fourth  expedition  against 
Khiva. 

For  more  than  a  century  from  this  date  the  situation 
was  changed,  the  Cossacks  who  had  formerly  plundered 
the  Khivans  being  themselves  the  victims  of  Khivan  plun- 
dering. Hundreds  of  Cossacks  and  other  Russians  were 
carried  to  Khiva  and  sold  into  slavery,  and  caravans  on 
their  w^ay  to  trade  in  Central  Asia  were  attacked  and 
plundered  almost  daily.  By  1839  these  raids  had  become 
intolerable  to  the  Russians,  and  the  government  at  St. 
Petersburg  determined  to  send  an  expedition  against 
Khiva.  It  was  commanded  by  General  Perovski,  and 
consisted  of  about  5,000  men,  22  guns,  and  a  transport 
train  of  10,000  camels.  As  it  was  thought  impossible  to 
cross  the  desert  in  summer,  the  expedition  started  from 
Orenburg  December  i,  1839. 

The  winter  proved  to  be  exceptionally  severe,  and  by 
the  middle  of  December  the  thermometer  showed  40° 
below  zero,  and  the  mercury  froze  when  exposed  to  the 
air.  The  snow  was  very  deep,  and  before  the  expedition 
was  half  way  to  Khiva  half  the  camels  were   dead  or  dis- 


368  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

abled  and  many  of  the  men  were  frostbitten  and  unable 
to  move  without  assistance.  The  camels  were  dying  at 
the  rate  of  one  hundred  a  day,  and  as  the  effective  force 
was  reduced  to  less  than  2,000  men.  General  Perovski  de= 
cided  to  retreat.  The  remnant  of  the  expedition  arrived 
at  Fort  Emba  in  February  and  remained  there  until 
spring,  but  the  attempt  to  capture  Khiva  was  not  then 
renewed. 

The  next  expedition  to  Khiva  was  that  of  General 
Kaufmann  in  1873,  which  resulted  in  the  conquest  of  the 
khanate  and  the  transfer  of  its  rule  to  Russia.  We  will 
now  consider  the  details  of  the  expedition. 

General  Kaufmann,  Governor-General  of  Turkestan, 
had  been  for  two  years  planning  the  expedition  and  get- 
ting ready  for  it  before  he  asked  the  permission  of  the 
government  at  St.  Petersburg  to  attack  the  khanate  of 
Khiva,  But  there  were  other  aspirants  than  Kaufmann 
for  the  honor  of  capturing  Khiva,  and  as  the  distances 
were  very  great  and  nobody  was  able  to  say  with  certainty 
which  route  offered  the  best  chances  of  success,  the  em- 
peror, after  due  consideration  of  the  subject,  decided  to 
send  four  expeditions  from  as  many  different  points.  The 
first  was  to  go  from  the  Caucasus  under  command  of 
Colonel  Markosoff ;  the  second  was  to  march  from  Oren- 
burg under  General  Verevkin  ;  the  third  was  from  Kin- 
derly  Bay,  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  under  Colonel  Lomakin  ; 
and  the  fourth  was  from  Tashkend  under  General  Kauf- 
mann. A  fifth  column  was  to  start  from  Kazala,  or  Fort 
No.  I,  on  the  Syr  Daria,  under  command  of  Grand  Duke 
Nicholas,  and  join  General  Kaufmann  en  route.  Marko- 
soff's  expedition  never  reached  Khiva ;  it  suffered  terribly 
in  the  desert,  and  when  within  120  miles  of  the  oasis  was 
compelled  to  turn  back. 

The  governor  of  Orenburg  did  not  receive  his  orders  to 
prepare  the  expedition  until  the  first  days  of  January. 
By  the  27th  of  February  he   had  his  troops  in   readiness 


FALL    OF  KHIVA.  369 

with  the  proper  ammunition,  equipment,  tents,  and  cloth- 
ing, for  a  march  of  1,100  miles  through  a  desert  country. 
In  spite  of  the  severe  cold  the  column  reached  Fort  Emba, 
on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  400  miles  from  the  start- 
ing-point, near  the  end  of  March,  without  the  loss  of  a 
man.  The  column  consisted  of  nine  companies  of  infan- 
try :  1,600  men;  nine  sotnias  (scjuadrons)  of  Cossacks: 
1,200  men  ;  eight  pieces  of  artillery,  a  rocket  and  a  mor- 
tar battery,  with  three  times  the  ordinary  store  of  amuni- 
tion.  The  transport  train  consisted  of  5,000  camels. 
Supplies  were  taken  for  two  months  and  a  half,  and  the 
entire  column  had  felt  tents  for  every  twenty  men. 

The  Kinderly  column  contained  1,800  men  with  ten 
pieces  of  artillery.  It  was  provisioned  and  equipped  sim- 
ilarly to  the  Orenburg  column,  which  it  was  intended  to 
join  at  Lake  Aibugir.  It  suffered  terribly  in  the  desert, 
partly  from  the  intense  heat  of  the  middle  of  the  day 
and  partly  from  great  scarcity  of  water.  There  were  few 
wells  along  the  route,  and  such  water  as  could  be  found 
was  very  bad  for  men  and  animals.  Sunstroke,  dysentery, 
and  general  debility  were  prevalent,  and  fever  was  so 
common  that  nobody  seemed  to  mind  it.  On  two  or 
three  occasions  the  whole  expedition  was  in  peril  of  death 
from  thirst ;  one  march  of  three  days  was  made  with 
practically  no  water,  the  Turcomans  having  poisoned  the 
only  well  on  the  route  by  throwing  into  it  the  carcases  of 
putrefying  animals.  The  march  ended  with  the  entrance 
into  the  oasis  near  Kungrad,  and  the  joy  of  the  soldiers 
can  be  imagined  when  they  found  green  pastures  and 
flowing  water  after  a  journey  of  two  months  across  the 
desert  and  terrible  suffering  from  thirst.  The  columns  of 
General  Vcrevkin  and  Colonel  Lomakin  joined  near  Kun- 
grad, which  was  taken  without  a  blow.  And  hereby  hangs 
an  interesting  incident. 

Up  to  their  arrival  at  Kungrad  neither  of  the  columns 
met    any    opposition   from    the    Khivans.     They  showed 


370  DECT  SITE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

themselves  a  few  times',  and  their  commanders  sent  inso- 
lent messages  to  the  Russian  leaders,  to  which  no  answers 
were  vouchsafed.  The  day  before  General  Verevkin  en- 
tered Kungrad,  he  received  a  letter  from  the  governor  of 
that  place  asking  that  the  Russians  would  delay  their  ad- 
vance for  three  days  so  that  he  could  have  his  cannon 
ready  and  give  them  battle.  He  threatened  that  if  they 
pushed  blindly  forward  before  that  time  he  would  simply 
refuse  to  fight.  They  continued  to  advance,  and  the 
Khivan  governor  of  Kungrad  kept  his  word  by  abandon- 
ing the  place  just  before  the  Russians  entered  it. 

But  from  Kungrad  onward  the  Russians  were  harassed 
by  the  Turcomans,  who  hung  on  their  flanks,  making  at- 
tacks or  feints  at  all  hours  and  keeping  the  invaders  in 
such  a  state  of  alertness  that  they  were  unable  to  get  any 
rest  at  night.  The  Turcomans  were  well  mounted,  and 
both  men  and  horses  showed  themselves  capable  of  won- 
derful endurance.  In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  Tur- 
comans the  united  column  advanced  steadily  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Khiva,  the  capital,  having  numerous  skirmishes 
with  the  enemy's  cavalry  and  an  occasional  encounter  in 
which  artillery  was  used.  On  the  9th  of  June  they  ar- 
rived in  front  of  Khiva,  but  in  consequence  of  the  high 
walls  of  the  gardens  and  the  forests  of  fruit-trees  they 
were  within  two  hundred  yards  of  the  walls  of  the  place 
before  they  were  aware  of  its  proximity.  Nothing  had 
been  heard  from  Kaufmann  beyond  vague  reports  from 
prisoners  that  there  was  a  Russian  column  approaching 
Khiva  on  the  other  side. 

General  Verevkin  and  his  staff  were  leading  the  advance 
along  a  road  not  more  than  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  wide, 
bordered  by  high  walls.  Suddenly  there  was  a  crash  of 
musketry  accompanied  by  the  deep  growl  of  artillery;  the 
bullets  from  the  small-arms  and  the  shot  from  the  cannon 
passed  over  their  heads,  as  the  Khivans  had  made  the  mis- 
take of  aiming  too  high.     Discharge  after  discharge   fol- 


FALL    OF  KHLVA.  37 1 

lowed,  and  in  a  little  while  the  Khivans  obtained  a  better 
range,  and  their  fire  began  to  tell.  The  Russians  then  found 
they  were  under  the  walls  of  Khiva  ;  retreat  was  inconveni- 
ent if  not  impossible,  and  General  Verevkin  gave  the  order 
to  advance.  The  infantry  went  forward  at  a  run,  and  soon 
came  into  an  open  field  in  front  of  one  of  the  gates,  which 
was  defended  by  a  breastwork  with  four  guns.  Two  com- 
panies of  infantry  under  Major  Burovstoff  dashed  over  the 
breastworks  and  bayonetted  the  gunners  ;  the  breastwork 
was  about  100  yards  from  the  walls  of  the  town,  and  from 
these  walls  the  Khivans  poured  such  a  deadly  fire  that  it 
was  not  possible  to  drag  away  the  guns  until  the  Russian 
artillery  had  opened  fire  and  compelled  the  slackening  of 
that  of  the  Khivans. 

Three  of  the  guns  were  taken  awa}-,  but  the  fourth  was 
spiked  and  left  behind.  In  retiring  to  their  own  lines  the 
Russian  storming  party  was  compelled  to  haul  the  guns 
one  by  one  over  a  narrow  bridge  and  across  an  open  field, 
exposed  all  the  time  to  Khivan  cannon-shot.  Then  a 
regular  bombardment  set  in,  which  was  temporarily  sus- 
pended on  a  request  from  the  Khan,  in  which  he  proposed 
terms  of  capitulation.  Hardh-  had  his  messenger  left  the 
camp  before  the  Khivan  fire  again  reopened,  and  there- 
upon the  Russians  renewed  theirs.  It  was  afterwards 
ascertained  that  the  Khan  was  unable  to  restrain  his  Turco- 
*man  forces,  and  the  fire  had  been  reopened  contrary  to  his 
orders. 

About  sunset  a  messenger  arrived  from  General  Kauf- 
mann  announcing  that  he  was  about  nine  miles  away  on 
the  other  side  of  the  city,  and  ordering  the  suspension  of 
the  fire.  It  was  obeyed  with  considerable  reluctance,  as 
General  Verevkin  was  confident  that  Khiva  would  soon  be 
within  his  grasp.  It  was  certainly  a  remarkable  circum- 
stance that  three  columns  starting  from  different  points  a 
thousand  miles  apart  should  have  arrived  before  Khiva 
almost  simultaneously.     We  will  now  make  a  flying  leap 


l-Jl  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

to  Tashkend  and  accompany  Kaufmann's  column  from 
that  city  to  Khiva. 

Kaufmann  had  about  2,500  men  in  his  column  with  a 
baggage  train  of  4,000  camels.  His  force  consisted  of 
eleven  companies  of  infantry  (1,650  men),  one  company  of 
sappers  and  miners,  four  pieces  of  horse  artillery,  and  six 
pieces  of  foot  artillery,  half  a  battery  of  mountain  howit- 
zers, a  battery  and  a  half  of  rockets,  and  600  Cossack  caval- 
ry. His  artillery  was  of  the  newest  model  of  breech-load- 
ers, and  the  mountain  battery  was  of  the  kind  that  can  be 
quickly  taken  to  pieces  and  packed  on  horseback.  The 
column  left  Tashkend  on  March  15th,  and  Djizzak  ten 
days  later.  The  troops  suffered  much  from  cold  on  the 
march,  but  as  the  season  advanced  the  weather  grew 
warmer,  and  the  column  reached  the  well  of  Arystan-Bel- 
Kuduk  on  the  13th  April. 

On  the  6th  May  Kaufmann  reached  Khala-Ata  where 
he  was  joined  by  the  column  under  Grand  Duke  Nicholas. 
It  left  Kazala  March  i  ith,  and  by  the  original  plan  it  was 
to  have  joined  Kaufmann  at  Bukali,  in  the  Bukan-Tau 
mountains.  Fearing  that  the  Kazala  column  might  be  too 
weak  to  meet  the  enemy  alone,  General  Kaufmann  sent 
word  for  the  Grand  Duke  to  join  him  at  Khala-Ata  instead 
of  Bukali.  This  change  of  plan  caused  some  delay,  as  the 
Kazala  column  was  compelled  to  make  a  detour  that  lost 
about  two  wxeks  of  valuable  time,  and  caused  the  latter 
part  of  the  march  to  be  made  after  the  summer  heats  had 
come  upon  the  desert  and  dried  up  some  of  the  wells. 
Several  days  were  spent  in  reconnoitring  the  country  be- 
fore them,  and  on  the  12th  of  May  the  united  column 
started  from  Khala-Ata.  The  Kazala  column,  which  had 
joined  that  from  Tashkend,  was  about  1,400  strong,  with 
half  a  battery  of  rockets,  half  a  battery  of  mountain  pieces, 
two  mitrailleuses,  and  150  Cossacks. 

The  first  encounter  with  the  enemy  was  at  Adam-Kur- 
ulgan,  to  which  point  Kaufmann  advanced    on   the    12th 


FALL    OF  KHIVA.  373 

May,  leaving  a  small  garrison  at  Khala-Ata.  Several 
wells  were  dug,  and  as  this  was  the  last  point  where  water 
could  be  obtained  before  reaching  the  Oxus,  preparations 
were  made  for  carrying  a  supply  sufficient  for  the  jour- 
ney. No  positive  information  could  be  obtained  as  to  the 
distance,  but  it  was  thought  that  the  river  was  not  more 
than  two  or  three  days  away,  and  accordingly  a  supply 
for  three  days  was  deemed  sufficient.  The  weather  was 
getting  so  hot  that  it  was  impossible  to  march  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day.  The  plan  was  to  march  from  very  early 
in  the  morning  until  about  nine  o'clock,  and  then  halt  until 
late  in  the  afternoon,  when  the  route  would  be  resumed 
till  nine  or  ten  at  night. 

On  the  first  day  on  this  part  of  the  desert  it  had  been 
expected  that  the  column  would  cover  thirty  miles,  but 
the  camels  were  so  much  enfeebled  and  retarded  the  move- 
ments so  greatly,  that  only  fifteen  miles  were  accomplished. 
It  was  found  that  nearly  the  whole  supply  of  water  was  ex- 
hausted, and  the  consequent  predicament  was  very  serious. 
To  retire  to  Adam-Kurulgan  might  be  the  signal  for  the 
whole  of  Central  Asia  to  rise  against  the  invaders. 
These  people  more  than  any  other  in  the  world  believe  in 
the  old  proverb  "  Nothing  succeeds  like  success."  The 
slightest  retrograde  movement  of  their  enemies  is  con- 
strued into  fear  or  incapacity,  and  gives  encouragement 
accordingly.  Kaufmann  could  not  wait  where  he  was  and 
send  back  for  water,  and  without  it  he  could  not  go  for- 
ward.    Retreat  or  advance  was  alike  impossible. 

But  it  was  necessary  to  choose  between  the  two  dire 
alternatives,  or  everybody  would  perish.  Kaufmann  was 
about  to  give  the  order  to  retire  to  Adam-Kurulgan  when 
one  of  the  guides  came  to  him  and  said  he  thought  h,e 
could  find  water  in  the  neighborhood,  although  all  the 
other  guides  persisted  that  there  was  none  nearer  than  the 
Oxus.  Kaufmann  handed  his  pocket  flask  to  the  fellow, 
and  said  :  "  Bring  that  full  of  water  and   I  '11   give  you  a 


374  DBlCISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WA'JEKLOO. 

hundred  roubles."  A  good  horse  was  given  to  the  man, 
and  he  was  off  at  full  speed  ;  in  an  hour  he  was  back  with 
the  flask  filled  with  water  which  he  had  obtained  from  a 
well  about  four  miles  from  the  route  ;  he  said  there  were 
tliree  wells  there,  unknown  to  the  caravans,  and  they  con- 
tained water  sufficient  for  the  army,  Kaufmann  imme- 
diately ordered  the  march  in  the  direction  of  the  wells, 
and  when  the  army  arrived  there  three  more  wells  were 
dug.  The  water  was  very  bad,  and  the  quantity  so  limit- 
ed, that  the  men  were  allowed  only  a  pint  a  day  each,  and 
there  was  none  for  the  camels.  The  place  has  since  been 
known  as  Alty-Kuduk,  or  "Six  Wells." 

Kaufmann  sent  the  camel  train  back  to  Adam-Kurulgan 
to  enable  the  camels  to  drink  and  bring  a  supply  of  fresh 
water  for  a  second  attempt  to  cross  the  desert.  The 
camel  train  had  an  escort  of  600  men  ;  this  escort  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Turcomans  at  daylight  on  the  i8th  of  May, 
the  latter  rightly  concluding  that  if  they  could  capture 
the  camels  it  would  not  be  possible  for  the  Russians  to 
cross  the  desert.  The  Turcomans  came  on  with  great 
bravery,  but  their  sabres  could  avail  nothing  againt  the 
Russian  breech-loaders,  and  they  were  driven  back  in  dis- 
order. So  enfeebled  were  the  camels,  and  so  great  were 
the  delays,  that  a  week  was  consumed  in  the  journey  to 
Adam-Kurulgan  and  back  to  Alty-Kuduk.  Meantime  the 
army  suffered  greatly,  but  the  water  gradually  grew  better 
and  more  plentiful,  and  Kaufmann  once  more  prepared  to 
advance. 

But  the  camels  were  so  reduced,  that  instead  of  carry- 
ing their  full  loads  of  600  pounds,  they  could  not  now 
average  200  pounds  each.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  bag- 
gage was  left  at  Alty-Kuduk,  under  a  small  garrison,  which 
threw  up  a  small  entrenchment  around  the  wells.  Two 
pieces  of  artillery  were  left,  and  also  four  of  the  six  iron 
boats  that  Kaufmann  had  prepared  for  passing  the  Oxus. 
The  march  was  made  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and   at   the 


FALL   OF  KHIVA.  3^5 

end  of  the  third  day  the  Oxus  was  in  sight.  During  all 
the  last  day  the  Turcoman  cavalry  hung  on  their  flanks 
and  continually  harassed  them,  but  the  breech-loading 
rifles  emptied  a  good  many  saddles,  and  prevented  any 
thing  like  a  charge.  Many  of  the  Turcoman  horses  were 
killed  by  the  Russian  sharp-shooters.  A  Turcoman  on 
foot  is  the  most  pitiable  of  beings,  and  utterly  useless  as 
a  soldier,  so  that  the  killing  of  a  horse  was  equivalent  for 
the  time  being  to  the  slaughter  or  disabling  of  a  man. 

The  discipline  of  the  Russian  soldier  is  well  illustrated 
by  the  conduct  of  the  men  when  the  water  was  reached. 
Though  the  soldiers  were  wild  with  thirst,  not  one  of  them 
broke  ranks  to  get  at  the  water  until  permission  was  given. 
Kaufmann  spoke  of  their  conduct  almost  with  tears  in  his 
eyes,  and  said  he  did  not  believe  the  soldiers  of  any  other 
army  in  the  world  could  thus  be  restrained.  The  neces- 
sity for  keeping  them  in  the  ranks  after  reaching  the 
water  was  caused  by  the  need  of  holding  the  Turcomans 
at  a  respectful  distance  ;  they  hung  close  to  the  army,  and 
were  evidently  prepared  to  take  advantage  of  the  disorder 
that  was  naturally  expected  when  the  water  was  reached. 

When  General  Kaufmann  reached  the  bank  of  the  Oxus, 
and  before  tasting  of  the  water,  he  crossed  himself  devoutly, 
and  each  officer  of  his  staff  did  the  same.  Part  of  the 
soldiers  were  detailed  to  carry  water  to  the  rest,  and  in 
a  few  minutes  the  parched  and  burning  throats  of  the  men 
and  animals  were  moistened,  the  enemy  being  held  at  bay 
in  the  meantime.  As  soon  as  the  safety  of  the  column 
tvas  made  sure,  the  Russians  changed  from  the  defensive 
to  the  offensive.  Shells  were  thrown  among  the  Turco- 
mans ;  the  Russian  cavalry  charged  and  pursued  their  late 
assailants  several  miles  along  the  bank  of  the  river.  They 
captured  a  dozen  "  kayuks "  or  boats,  so  that  General 
Kaufmann  had  no  more  regrets  about  the  iron  boats  he 
was  forced  to  leave  behind  before  crossing  the  desert. 
Down  to  this  time  he  had  been  greatly  distressed  on  the 


3/6  DF.CISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

subject,  as  it  was  necessary  to  cross  the  river  in  order  to 
get  to  Khiva. 

On  the  morning  of  the  30th  May,  Kaufmann  began 
crossing  his  army  to  the  other  bank  of  the  Oxus.  The 
spot  selected  for  the  crossing  was  at  Sheik-Arik,  where  a 
canal,  diverted  from  the  river,  enters  the  oasis.  The  oasis 
of  Khiva  practically  begins  at  Sheik-Arik,  though  there  is 
considerable  cultivation  higher  up  the  river.  The  ground 
from  here  to  the  Aral  Sea  is  intersected  with  numerous 
ditches  and  canals,  which  are  the  existence  of  the  gardens 
for  which  the  country  is  famous.  Khiva  resembles  Lower 
Egypt  in  its  dependence  upon  the  river  that  runs  through 
it.  Should  the  river  cease  to  flow,  the  entire  oasis  would 
soon  become  like  the  desert  which  now  surrounds  it,  and 
was  for  so  long  its  protection  against  invasion. 

The  boats  were  capable  of  carrying  fifty  men  each  ;  the 
river  is  here  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  wide,  with  a  fair 
but  not  powerful  current,  and  the  crossing  occupied  about 
twenty  minutes.  But  in  going  over  and  returning  the  boat 
was  drifted  far  down  the  stream,  so  that  it  took  some  time 
to  drag  it  up  to  the  point  where  the  troops  were  to  enter 
it.  After  their  march  through  the  desert,  the  soldiers 
greatly  enjoyed  the  opportunit}'  of  sporting  in  the  water. 
The  horses  came  in  for  their  share  of  delight,  and  the 
animals  generally  made  no  opposition  to  swimming  behind 
the  boats.  There  was  a  good  deal  of  doubt  as  to  whether 
the  passage  would  be  disputed  by  the  Turcomans,  but  to 
the  delight  of  the  Russians  not  a  single  enemy  appeared, 
and  the  crossing  was  unmolested.  If  the  Turcomans  had 
made  ever  so  feeble  an  attempt  they  would  have  troubled 
the  Russians  a  good  deal,  as  they  had  a  fortification  on  the 
other  bank  of  the  river  which  could  have  been  easily  de- 
fended. The  first  of  the  Russians  that  crossed  took 
possession  of  this  fort ;  four  small  cannon  were  sent  over, 
and  in  two  or  three  hours  after  the  first  boat-load  had 
crossed,  the  Russians  were  strongly  posted  and  able  to 
take  care  of  themselves. 


FALL    OF  KHIVA.  2)77 

All  day  long  the  crossing  continued,  but  at  nightfall  the 
work  was  not  completed.  During  the  night  the  Oxus  rose 
about  six  feet,  and  a  portion  of  the  Russian  camp  was 
drowned  out,  but  happily  it  was  only  the  camp  and  not 
any  of  its  occupants.  The  next  day  the  crossing  was  com- 
pleted, and  the  camels,  well  laden  with  water  and  refreshed 
and  strengthened  by  their  brief  stay  in  the  rich  valley  of 
the  Oxus,  were  sent  back  to  bring  up  the  detachment  and 
baggage  that  had  been  left  at  Alty-Kuduk.  General 
Kaufmann  issued  a  friendly  proclamation  to  the  Khivans, 
and  induced  them  to  open  a  bazaar  near  his  camp  for  the 
sale  of  food.  He  announced  that  all  who  remained  at 
home  would  not  be  molested  in  person  or  property,  and 
that  the  Russians  would  pay  for  all  the  provisions  and 
forage  they  wanted  when  it  was  brought  into  camp.  But 
he  added  that  if  they  were  obliged  to  go  out  and  hunt  for 
their  supplies,  they  would  take  whatever  they  wanted 
without  paying  for  it,  and  would  pillage  and  burn  every 
abandoned  house.  The  proclamation  had  the  desired  effect, 
and  the  Khivans  brought  in  a  plentiful  supply  of  flour, 
fruit,  chickens,  sheep,  rice,  sugar,  tea,  and  other  things  of 
which  the  Russians  were  in  great  need.  They  demanded 
and  received  four  or  five  times  the  ordinary  prices  of  what 
they  sold.  As  they  had  expected  the  Russians  would  take 
every  thing  without  payment,  such  being  their  own  practice 
on  their  forays,  they  were  greatly  surprised  at  the  conduct 
of  their  conquerors,  and  good  feelings  were  established  at 
once. 

Things  went  on  in  this  way  for  three  days,  when  the 
Khivans  suddenly  stopped  bringing  in  supplies,  in  conse- 
quence of  an  order  from  the  Khan  that  any  one  who  gave 
or  sold  provisions  to  the  Russians  should  be  put  to  death. 
A  foraging  party  was  sent  out  and  had  a  slight  skirmish 
with  the  Turcomans,  and  on  the  next  day  General  Kauf- 
mann decided  to  advance.  He  had  received  a  letter  from 
General   Verevkin,   giving    notice   of    his  approach    from 


378  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

Kungrad,  and  very  naturally  he  did  not  wish  his  inferior  in 
rank  to  have  the  honor  of  being  the  first  to  enter  the  capital. 

Hazar-Asp,  a  strong  fortification  capable  of  a  vigorous 
defence,  was  surrendered  without  a  blow,  somewhat  to  the 
disappointment  of  the  younger  officers,  who  were  anxious 
for  a  fight.  The  fortification  encloses  a  village  of  about 
5,000  inhabitants,  and  covers  some  three  acres  of  ground. 
It  is  10  miles  back  frorh  the  river  and  about  40  from 
Khiva.  A  small  garrison  was  left  to  hold  the  place  and 
the  rest  of  the  army  encamped  near  the  river,  waiting  for 
the  whole  column  to  arrive  from  Alty-Kudjk  before  ad- 
vancing upon  Khiva.  On  the  morning  of  the  8th  June 
the  Alty-Kuduk  detachment  had  arrived,  and  the  whoje 
camp  was  broken  up  for  the  march  to  the  capital.  No 
opposition  was  made  to  the  advance,  and  by  the  evening 
of  the  9th  the  army  was  within  10  miles  of  Khiva  when  a 
messenger  brought  a  letter  from  the  Khan,  offering  his 
subm.'ssion  and  proposing  to  surrender  himself  and  his 
capital  immediately. 

This  message  was  the  result  of  the  bombardment  of  the 
other  side  of  the  city  by  General  Verevkin's  column, 
which  has  been  described  already.  Kaufmann  immedi- 
ately sent  orders  for  Verevkin  to  stop  his  bombardment, 
which  the  latter  obeyed  as  a  matter  of  course,  though 
much  against  his  will. 

Next  morning,  Kaufmann  wrote  to  the  Khan,  telling 
him  to  march  out  on  the  Hazar-Asp  road  with  100  of  his 
followers  and  listen  to  the  terms  of  surrender.  During 
the  night  the  Khan  fled  from  the  city  and  was  not  at 
hand  to  receive  the  letter,  which  was  responded  to  by  his 
uncle,  Said  Emir  Ul-Umer,  who  surrendered  the  city. 
While  these  negotiations  were  going  on,  several  reports  of 
cannon  were  heard ;  they  continued  at  varied  intervals 
until  Kaufmann's  troops  were  actually  entering  the  city 
at  the  Hazar-Asp  gate.  It  turned  out  that  the  Turcomans 
had  renewed  the  fight   with  Verevkin's  troops,  and   the 


FALL    OF  KHIVA.  379 

latter  were  not  slow  to  reply.  With  their  artillery  they 
battered  down  the  Hazavat  gate,  and  then  Colonel 
Skobeleff  and  Count  Shuvaloff,  with  about  1,000  men, 
made  a  dash  into  the  city  and  kept  up  a  running  fight  to 
the  Great  Square  and  the  palace  of  the  Khan. 

They  had  been  there  about  five  minutes  when  they 
heard  that  the  Tashkend  column  was  entering  at  the 
Hazar-Asp  gate  with  drums  beating  and  colors  flying. 
Waiting  an  instant  to  catch  the  strains  of  the  music, 
Colonel  Skobeleff  gave  the  order  to  retreat,  and  his  men 
left  Khiva  by  the  gate  by  which  they  had  entered.  Great 
pains  were  taken  to  prevent  publicity  to  this  incident,  as 
it  was  but  natural  that  the  commanding  general  would 
not  wish  to  cede  the  honor  of  the  capture  of  Khiva  to  a 
subordinate. 

The  Tashkend  column  marched  to  the  Great  Square, 
and  was  drawn  up  in  line  to  receive  General  Kaufmann, 
who  shortly  entered,  accompanied  by  the  ofificers  of  his 
staff.  The  band  played  the  national  air  of  Russia,  the 
colors  were  saluted,  and  solemn  possession  was  taken  in  the 
name  of  the  Czar.  The  Khivans  received  their  conquer- 
ors in  silence,  but  great  numbers  of  them  brought  peace- 
offerings  in  the  shape  of  dried  fruit  and  similar  articles  of 
food.  On  being  assured  that  no  harm  would  come  to  any 
who  remained  quietly  at  home,  they  seemed  content,  and 
before  nightfall  had  opened  a  bazaar  and  were  doing  an 
excellent  business  with  the  Russians. 

The  warmest  welcome  was  given  to  the  Russians  by  the 
Persian  slaves.  Khiva  has  been  for  many  decades  one  of 
the  great  slave  markets  of  Asia  ;  thousands  of  Persians 
and  many  Russians  have  been  sold  there  into  perpetual 
bondage,  and  when  once  in  the  possession  of  a  Khivan 
master,  their  escape  or  redemption  was  hopeless.  They 
had  heard  that  wherever  the  Russians  went  there  was  no 
more  slavery,  and  when  the  Muscovites  took  possession  of 
the    city    hundreds    of   these    unhappy  captives  crowded 


380  DECISIVE   BATTIES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

around  them  to  have  their  chains  removed.  This  is  no 
figure  of  speech,  as  it  was  the  custom  of  the  Khivans  to 
load  their  slaves  with  chains  to  prevent  their  running 
away.  The  sound  of  chisel  and  hammer,  as  the  links 
were  cut,  or  the  grating  of  the  file  opening  the  rivets,  were 
audible  all  over  Khiva  for  several  days  after  the  arrival  of 
the  Russians.  Slavery  in  the  oasis  was  at  an  end.  The 
Russian  slaves  in  Khiva  were  liberated  just  before  Kauf- 
mann  started  from  Tashkend,  but  too  late  to  prevent  the 
departure  of  the  expedition. 

A  few  days  after  taking  possession  of  the  city,  General 
Kaufmann  drafted  a  treaty  to  be  made  between  the 
Khan  and  the  Emperor.  It  was  sent  to  St.  Petersburg, 
where  it  received  the  imperial  sanction,  and  was  then 
returned  to  the  general.  On  the  23d  of  August  it  was 
signed  by  General  Kaufmann  and  the  Khan  in  presence 
of  the  full  staff  of  the  former  and  a  proportionate  number 
of  Khivan  dignitaries. 

By  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  the  Khan  became  a  vassal 
of  the  Emperor,  surrendering  the  right  of  holding  direct 
5elations  with  neighboring  khans  and  potentates,  declaring 
war,  or  making  commercial  treaties,  without  the  Emperor's 
permission.  The  boundaries  were  carefully  defined  ;  the 
Oxus  was  to  be  navigated  exclusively  by  Russian  vessels  ; 
the  Russians  had  the  right  to  establish  ports  and  posts 
wherever  they  pleased  ;  could  build  warehouses  for  the 
storage  of  goods,  and  all  Russian  merchants  could  have 
their  commercial  agents  in  Khiva,  or  other  towns  of  the 
khanate.  Slavery  was  to  cease  forever,  and  the  khanate 
agreed  to  pay  a  war  indemnity  of  2,200,000  roubles  in 
twenty  annual  instalments,  with  interest  at  five  per  cent. 

The  conquest  of  Khiva  pushed  the  boundary  of  Russia 
some  300  miles  to  the  south,  annexed  a  territory  of 
many  thousand  square  miles,  and  gave  complete  control 
of  the  navigation  of  the  Oxus.  The  moral  advantages 
of  the  conquest  were    of    more  consequence    to    Russia 


FALL    OF  KHLVA.  38 1 

than  the  material  ones,  though  the  latter  were  by  no 
means  small.  Khiva  had  been  considered  inaccessible 
and  impregnable.  Its  fall  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
upon  the  Moslem  inhabitants  of  Central  Asia,  by  showing 
them  that  the  Russians  were  invincible.  Khiva  was  the 
last  stronghold  of  Islam  in  Central  Asia  after  the  fall  of 
Bokhara,  and  its  capture  was  necessary  to  the  spread  of 
Russian  influence  in  the  direction  of  India.  And  however 
jealousl}'  the  conquest  may  have  been  regarded  by  British 
statesmen,  there  can  be  no  dispute  that  humanity  gained 
greatly  by  the  result  of  Kaufmann's  victor)-. 

Whatever  shortcomings  there  may  be  in  the  rule  of  the 
Czar,  it  is  far  preferable  to  that  of  the  Khan.  Human  life 
is  no  longer  disregarded  ;  tortures  and  wholesale  decapita- 
tions are  no  more  permitted  ;  raids  for  purposes  of  plun- 
der are  things  of  the  past,  and  the  inhabitants  of  neigh- 
boring districts  are  no  longer  in  constant  peril  of  being 
carried  into  slavery.  Before  the  arrival  of  Kaufmann  the 
Great  Square  of  Khiva  was  the  scene  of  terrible  spectacles. 
Vambery  describes  how  he  witnessed  there  in  1863  the 
payment  for  the  heads  of  men  slain  in  battle,  the  execution 
of  prisoners,  the  sale  or  bestowal  of  others  into  slavery, 
and  how  several  aged  men,  useless  as  slaves,  were  thrown 
on  the  ground,  and  firmly  held  while  the  executioner 
gouged  out  their  eyes,  and  coolly  wiped  his  dripping 
knife  on  their  beards.  If  nothing  else  was  required, 
the  abolition  of  these  wanton  cruelties  was  a  co'nplete 
justification  of  the  Russian  conquest  of  the  Oasis  ^{  the 
khans. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

FALL    OF    PLEVNA — iS//. 

Ever  since  Turkey  obtained  a  footing  in  Europe  the 
Christian  inhabitants  of  her  territories  have  been  the  vic- 
tims of  oppression.  The  extent  of  this  oppression  has 
varied  from  time  to  time  according  to  the  caprices  of  the 
rulers  at  Constantinople  or  in  the  provincial  capitals,  and 
is  no  doubt  greatly  influenced  by  the  conduct  of  the  sub- 
ject people.  They  are  naturally  opposed  to  Moslem  rule 
even  under  its  mildest  forms,  and  whenever  it  becomes 
severe  their  first  thoughts  are  for  insurrection. 

Russia  has  been  for  a  century  and  more  the  champion 
of  the  Christian  populations  groaning  under  the  Turkish 
yoke,  and  her  wars  with  Turkey  have  grown  out  of  her 
sympathy  for  the  suffering  Christians  of  that  country  and 
its  dependencies.  The  war  of  1827-28  came  from  the  aid 
which  Russia  had  given  to  the  Greeks  in  their  war  for  in- 
dependence ;  the  Crimean  war  grew  out  of  a  quarrel  over 
the  custody  of  the  holy  places  in  Palestine,  and  the  refusal  of 
Turkey  to  place  certain  of  her  Christian  subjects  under 
Russian  protection  ;  and  the  wan  of  1877-78  was  brought 
about  by  the  barbarities  of  the  Turks  in  the  Danubian 
provinces,  where  the  Christian  inhabitants  were  numeri- 
cally greater  than  the  Moslems. 

The  success  of  Turkey  against  Russia  in  the  Crimean 
war,  owing  to  the  aid  of  England,  France,  and  Sardinia, 
added  to  the  insolence  of  the  Turks,  and  led  to  cruelties 
to  their  Christian  subjects.      Heavy  taxes  were  laid  upon 

382 


FALL    OF  PLEVNA.  383 

the  Christian  peasants  throughout  the  rural  districts  of 
Servia,  Montenegro,  and  the  other  Turkish  provinces ; 
the  Porte  requiring  the  provinces  to  contribute  a  certain 
amount  of  money  annually,  which  was  extorted  from  the 
people  by  the  local  rulers.  And  not  only  was  this  tax  ex- 
torted, but  the  local  rulers  generally  added  large  sums  for 
their  own  pockets,  and  each  subordinate  concerned  in  the 
collection  did  the  same.  The  consequence  was  that  the 
people  were  severely  oppressed,  and  found  it  impossible, 
even  with  the  greatest  industry  and  the  closest  economy, 
to  satisfy  the  demands  of  those  who  ruled  over  them. 

This  state  of  affairs  naturally  led  to  insurrection,  which 
the  Turks  proceeded  to  put  down  with  an  iron  hand.  The 
revolted  provinces  were  overrun  by  Turkish  troops,  and 
though  they  fought  bravely  the  armies  of  the  insurgents 
were  conquered.  The  most  horrible  reprisals  were  taken 
on  the  villagers  throughout  Bulgaria  and  Servia,  especially 
in  the  former.  Men,  women,  and  children  were  ruthlessly 
slaughtered  by  the  Turks  or  by  their  irregular  cavalry, 
known  as  "  Bashi-Bazouks."  Hundreds  of  villages  were 
wiped  out  of  existence  ;  tlie  inhabitants,  without  regard  to 
age  or  sex,  being  killed  or  driven  away,  and  the  houses 
burned  to  the  ground.  The  whole  country  threatened  to 
become  a  desert,  unless,  perhaps,  it  should  be  re-populated 
by  Moslems.  The  accounts  of  the  Bulgarian  atrocities 
.  caused  great  excitement  in  England  in  1876.  Many  meet- 
ings were  held  to  protest  against  further  support  of  Turkey 
by  England,  and  the  question  became  an  important  one 
in  diplomacy.  The  British  government  issued,  in  April, 
1877,  a  proclamation  of  neutrality  in  the  war  which  then 
seemed  imminent  between  Russia  and  Turkc)-. 

At  the  suggestion  of  Russia,  the  great  powers  of  Europe 
united  in  a  convention,  with  the  avowed  object  of  preserv- 
ing peace  between  the  governments  of  the  Czar  and  tlu 
Sultan.  After  much  deliberation  a  protocol  was  drawn  up, 
in  which  a  reciprocal  disarming  of  Russia  and  Turkey  was 


384  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

proposed,  and  Turkey  on  her  part  should  give  a  guaranty 
for  the  proper  treatment  of  her  Christian  subjects.  Evi- 
dently the  signatory  powers  had  Httle  faith  in  the  efficacy 
of  the  protocol,  as  three  of  them  made  separate  declarations 
before  signing  it.  Their  lack  of  faith  was  justified  by  the 
result,  as  on  the  9th  April  Turkey  indignantly  rejected  the 
protocol,  and  very  plainly  declared  her  intention  of  ignoring 
"  what  had  been  decided  without  her  and  against  her." 

Russia  had  already  massed  large  numbers  of  troops  on 
her  frontier,  and  Turkey  was  also  engaged  in  the  work  of 
mobilization.  On  the  24th  April  the  Emperor  of  Russia 
issued  a  manifesto  to  his  subjects,  in  which  he  recited  the 
interest  of  the  empire  in  the  Christian  population  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula,  and  the  general  desire  that  their  condi- 
tion should  be  ameliorated.  He  declared  that  all  efforts  at 
peace  had  been  exhausted,  and  he  found  himself  compelled 
by  the  haughty  obstinacy  of  the  Porte  to  proceed  to  more 
decided  acts.  He  had  given  the  orders  for  the  army  to 
cross  the  frontier,  and  the  advance  upon  Turkey  was  begun 
without  delay.  Every  thing  had  been  in  readiness  for  some 
time,  and  the  army  moved  promptly  when  the  long-expected 
order  was  given. 

The  Turks  had  not  been  idle,  though  their  preparations 
were  by  no  means  as  complete  as  those  of  Russia.  They 
had  massed  heavy  bodies  of  troops  along  the  Danube,  and 
were  prepared  to  resist  the  movements  of  the  Russians 
south  of  that  stream  ;  they  were  confident  of  victory,  their 
confidence  having  been  greatly  inspired  by  their  previous 
victories  over  the  Servians,  who  were  assisted  by  many 
Russian  volunteers  in  the  Servian  rank  and  file,  and  by  a 
goodly  number  of  Russian  officers,  who  tendered  their 
services  with  the  full  approval  of  the  Czar.  Rustchuk, 
Widin,  and  Silistria  were  strongly  garrisoned,  and  the  forti- 
fications which  still  remained  from  the  Crimean  war  and 
the  war  of  1827-28  were  made  more  formidable  than  ever 
before.   It  was  estimated  that  Rustchuk  alone  would  require 


FALL   OF  PLEVNA.  385 

an  army  of  80,000  men  for  at  least  three  months  to  effect 
its  reduction,  while  Widin  and  SiHstria  would  each  require 
as  many  more.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Russians  were 
equally  certain  of  success.  They  did  not  propose  to  sit 
down  in  siege-workini^,  but,  while  leaving  a  small  force 
sufficient  to  keep  the  Turkish  garrisons  from  venturing  too 
far  from  their  walls,  they  would  move  to  the  rear  of  the 
fortresses  and  advance  upon  the  Balkans. 

At  the  outset  Russia  miscalculated  her  powers.  She 
thought  she  would  be  able  to  conduct  the  campaign  with 
200,000  men,  and  this  was  the  force  at  hand  when  she 
made  her  first  move.  Turkey  had  at  that  time  250,000 
men  under  arms,  of  whom  fully  1 50,000  were  available  for 
service  on  the  Danube  at  the  time  war  was  declared.  Four 
months  later  Turkey  had  220,000  men  facing  the  Russians, 
and  the  latter  were  compelled  to  make  a  fresh  levy  and 
bring  up  their  reserves. 

The  "  Army  of  the  South,"  as  the  Russian  invading 
force  was  called,  was  under  the  immediate  command  of  the 
Grand  Duke  Nicholas,  and  consisted  of  seven  army  corps 
with  two  brigades  of  rifles.  The  field  artillery  amounted 
to  about  800  guns,  most  of  them  breech-loaders,  and  there 
was  a  powerful  siege  train  which  was  expected  to  be  use- 
ful in  the  reduction  of  the  works  that  barred  the  way  to 
Constantinople.  The  infantry  was  armed  with  breech- 
loaders which  had  been  made  from  muzzle-loaders,  con- 
verted by  the  Krenk  (Austrian)  system,  which  had  been 
declined  by  other  governments.  Against  it  the  Turks 
brought  the  Peabody  rifle,  an  American  weapon  of  far 
greater  range  than  the  Russian  one  ;  the  latter  was  only 
effective  at  1,200  yards,  wiiilc  the  Peabody  could  be  re- 
lied upon  for  good  work  up  to  at  least  2,000  yards.  The 
infantry  arms  played  an  important  part  in  the  resistance 
which  the  Turks  made  to  the  Russian  advance. 

The  Russian  artillery  was  equally  inferior  to  that  of  the 
Turks.    The  Turks  liad  steel  guns  manufactured  by  Krupp, 


386  DECISIVE   BATTIES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

while  the  Russian  guns  were  of  bronze,  and  of  less  range 
and  accuracy  than  those  of  the  Krupp  system.  The  cav- 
alry of  the  Russians  was  superior  to  that  of  the  Turks, 
both  in  strength  and  efficiency.  A  division  of  cavalry 
was  attached  to  each  army  corps,  and  in  every  cavalry  di- 
vision there  was  a  full  regiment  of  Cossacks.  The  Cossacks 
are  the  same  that  they  have  been  through  all  the  wars  of 
Russia,  irregular  troops  serving  without  pay,  their  service 
being  given  in  place  of  taxes.  The  men  are  the  owners 
of  the  horses  they  ride,  and  also  of  their  clothing  and 
equipments,  their  arms  being  furnished  by  government. 
They  are  probably  the  finest  light  cavalry  in  the  world, 
and  the  amount  of  marching  they  can  do  is  something 
astonishing.  Horses  and  men  can  undergo  an  amount  of 
fatigue  that  would  paralyze  any  other  horsemen  in  the 
world  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  North  American 
Indians  and  the  GuacJios  of  South  America.  The  Cos- 
sacks are  fine  riders,  and  their  horses  are  trained  to  lie 
down  at  the  word  of  command  and  remain  perfectly  still, 
while  their  owners  fire  over  them  in  repelling  a  real  or 
imaginary  attack  of  the  enemy.  The  Cossacks  have  an 
allowance  for  provisions  and  forage,  and  generally  manage 
to  save  something,  although  they  keep  themselves  and 
their  chargers  in  good  condition.  Their  reputation  for 
living  off  the  enemy  is  equal  to  that  of  irregular  cavalry 
generally,  though  not  as  bad  as  that  of  the  Bashi-Bazouks. 
The  Bashi-Bazouks  of  the  Turks  were  recruited  among 
the  Bulgarians  and  Roumelians,  and  a  goodly  portion  of 
them  were  originally  thieves  and  local  guerillas.  In 
several  instances  robber  chiefs  who  were  "  wanted"  by  the 
authorities  were  pardoned  for  their  past  offences,  on  con- 
dition that  they  would  enlist  men  for  the  service,  and  take 
commands  in  the  field,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  what  kind  of 
marauders  would  thus  be  created  when  they  had  militar)- 
authority  for  their  actions.  They  were  a  terror  to  the 
Christian  inhabitants  of  the  country,  as  they  did  not  scru- 


FALL    OF  FLFVNA.  387 

pie  to  add  murder  to  robbery  when  the  individual  who 
was  the  victim  made  any  protestations.  Most  of  the  mas- 
sacres in  Bulgaria  before  the  war  broke  out  were  the  work 
of  the  Bashi-Bazouks,  and  while  the  war  was  in  progress 
they  proved  nearly  as  great  a  pest  to  the  Moslem  inhabi- 
tants as  they  did  to  the  Christians.  The  Nizam,  or  regu- 
lar troops  of  the  Turkish  army,  were  of  very  good  material ; 
many  of  them  came  from  the  Asiatic  provinces  of  Turkey, 
and  when  well  drilled  they  made  excellent  soldiers.  The 
faith  of  Islam  teaches  that  a  Moslem  who  dies  fighting 
for  the  preservation  of  his  religion,  goes  straight  to  para- 
dise, according  to  the  teachings  of  Mohammed,  the  Rus- 
sian is  an  infidel,  and  consequently  the  war  with  Russia 
had  a  religious  aspect.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is 
no  wonder  that  the  Turkish  soldiers  manifested  an  almost 
stoical  indifference  to  death,  and  fought  bravely  to  the 
last. 

Russia  was  at  a  disadvantage  in  one  respect.  She  had 
no  fleet  of  war  ships  to  cope  with  the  ironclad  fleet  of  the 
Turks,  and  consequently  the  latter  had  practically  the  con- 
trol of  the  Black  Sea.  Without  transports  and  a  fleet  of 
war  ships  to  protect  them,  Russia  was  compelled  to  march 
her  troops  by  land  and  across  the  Danube,  where  she  ran 
the  risk  of  an  encounter  with  the  Turkish  gun-boats 
which  patrolled  that  river.  Early  in  the  war  two  of  the 
Turkish  gun-boats  on  the  Danube  were  destroyed  by  tor- 
pedoes, and  in  a  little  while  the  Russians  filled  the  lower 
Danube  with  such  a  net-work  of  torpedoes,  that  the  Turk- 
ish gun-boats  dared  not  venture  among  them. 

From  the  frontier  the  line  of  advance  for  the  Russians 
was  by  the  railway  to  Galatz  and  thence  to  Bucharest,  the 
capital  of  Roumania.  The  Roumanians  made  hearty 
cause  with  the  Russians,  whom  they  joined  in  declaring 
war  on  Turkey,  and  sent  a  contingent  to  the  field.  From 
Bucharest  a  line  of  railway  reaches  to  Giurgevo  on  the 
Danube ;  Giurgevo  is  opposite  to  Rustchuk.  whence  the 


388  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

Turks  had  a  railway  to  Varna,  an  important  military  and 
naval  station.  Where  the  Danube  would  be  crossed  was 
a  mystery  which  the  Russians  concealed  with  the  skill 
for  which  they  are  famous.  If  a  Russian  does  not  wish 
to  tell  you  any  thing  he  will  be  exasperatingly  courteous 
under  all  your  interrogatories,  but  the  extraction  of  the 
information  is  far  more  difficult  than  the  historical  process 
of  drawing  sunbeams  from  cucumbers.  Batteries  were 
erected  opposite  Rustchuk,  and  for  days  and  days  the 
Russians  kept  up  a  steady  fire  upon  that  town  and  its  for- 
tifications. Meantime,  the  preparations  for  the  crossing 
went  on  ;  the  Russian  divisions  were  massed  at  several 
points  on  the  river's  bank,  and  hundreds  of  pontoons  were 
made  ready. 

The  first  crossing  was  made  at  Galatz,  on  the  22d  June, 
by  General  Zimmermann,  who  went  over  with  two  regi- 
ments in  pontoons  and  drove  out  the  Turks  who  were 
posted  on  the  heights  on  the  opposite  shore.  Having 
obtained  a  footing  in  the  Dobrudja,  as  the  peninsula  be- 
tween the  Danube  and  Black  Sea  is  called,  the  Russians 
were  able  to  throw  bridges  over  the  great  stream,  by 
which  the  whole  left  wing  of  the  army  moved  across. 
Meantime  the  right  wing,  on  the  26th  June,  sent  a  pon- 
toon force  over  the  Danube  from  Simnitza,  under  com- 
mand of  General  Skobeleff,  who  drove  out  the  small  force 
of  Turks  posted  there,  though  not  without  hard  fighting. 
More  pontoons  followed,  and  then  a  bridge  was  thrown 
across  on  which  the  army  could  march.  It  is  related  of 
Skobeleff  that  he  urged  his  father,  a  lieutenant-general  of 
Cossacks,  to  swim  his  whole  division  over  the  Danube. 
The  elder  Skobeleff  refused,  whereupon  the  younger  swam 
the  river  accompanied  by  a  Kirghese  servant  and  three 
Russian  orderlies.  The  three  orderlies  and  their  horses 
were  drowned,  but  Skobeleff  and  the  Kirghese  got  over 
safely. 

By  the  first  week  of  July  the  whole  Russian  army  was 


FALL    OF  PL.FVNA.  389 

safely  encamped  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Danube, 
and  getting  in  readiness  to  assume  the  offensive.  It  took 
some  days  to  accumulate  the  needed  supplies  and  bring 
them  over,  so  that  the  advance  did  not  begin  in  force 
until  after  the  middle  of  the  month.  But  before  that 
time  General  Gourko,  with  the  advance  and  the  8th 
corps,  had  pushed  forward  on  the  road  to  the  Balkans, 
heading  first  for  Tirnova.  The  Russians  had  determined 
to  follow  the  lines  of  the  Yantra  and  Vid  rivers  in  their 
advance  to  the  south ;  both  flow  from  the  mountains  in  a 
northerly  direction  to  reach  the  Danube,  the  Yantra  com- 
ing in  to  the  east  of  Sistova,  and  the  Vid  beyond  Nicopo- 
lis  to  the  westward. 

On  the  5th  July  the  cavalry  occupied  Biela,  which  lies 
on  the  great  road,  and  on  the  7th  Gourko  was  in  posses- 
sion of  Tirnova.  The  plan  was  for  the  12th  and  13th 
corps  to  form  the  left  of  the  army  and  ascend  the  valley 
of  the  Yantra,  while  the  centre  followed  the  Great  Road 
leading  to  the  passes  of  the  Balkans.  The  9th  corps  was 
to  compose  the  right  flank,  and  after  capturing  Nicopolis, 
go  up  the  valley  of  the  Vid.  The  nth  and  4th  corps 
were  to  form  the  reserve,  and  be  sent  wherever  they  might 
be  most  needed.  The  Emperor  joined  the  army  at  Biela 
on  the  8th  or  9th.  Gourko  was  soon  reported  past  the 
Balkans  ;  Nicopolis  was  captured  by  Baron  Krudener ; 
and  every  thing  seemed  to  be  progressing  favorably  for  the 
Russians,  who  had  not  thus  far  met  any  considerable 
force  of  the  enemy.  News  came  from  Constantinople 
that  the  Turkish  government  was  greatly  alarmed  at  the 
successful  passage  of  the  Danube  by  the  Russians,  and 
had  removed  and  banished  the  commander  of  the  army, 
Abdul  Kerim  Pasha. 

The  first  check  of  the  Russians  was  at  Plevna.  They 
had  previously  ciptured  Nicopolis  with  its  garrison  of 
7,000  men,  havii.g  themselves  lost  about  1,300  officers  and 
men   killed  and  wounded.     Orders  had  been  given  to  oc* 


390  DECISIVE   BA  TTLES   ■'^INCE   IVA  TERLOO. 

cupy  Plevna  as  soon  as  possible,  and  Baron  Krudener 
sent  forward  General  Schilder-Schuldner  to  carry  out  the 
orders.  There  had  been  reports  of  the  advance  of  a 
Turkish  army  from  Widin,  marching  on  the  Russian 
flank,  under  command  of  Osman  Pasha,  and  other  re- 
ports of  a  column  moving  from  Sophia.  Due  credence 
seems  not  to  have  been  given  to  these  reports,  and  Baron 
Krudener  was  not  aware  of  the  Turkish  advance  until  it 
was  close  upon  him.  Schilder-Schuldner  had  6,500  men 
and  46  guns  in  the  division  with  which  he  went  to  capture 
Plevna ;  he  was  attacked  by  a  vastly  superior  force  of 
Turks  before  he  had  reached  his  objective  point,  and  the 
first  battle  of  Plevna  was  disastrous  to  the  Russians. 

A  brigade  of  Don  Cossacks  had  been  ordered  to  join 
Schilder-Schuldner's  command.  They  were  taking  their 
dinner  on  the  19th,  when  the  cannonade  opened  about 
eight  miles  to  the  southeast,  right  in  the  direction  they 
were  going.  As  soon  as  possible  they  hurried  on  in  the 
hope  of  finding  him,  but  found  themselves  cut  off  by  a 
column  of  Turkish  infantry,  which  lay  stretched  across  the 
road.  There  was  some  sharp  fighting  with  the  infantry 
and  artillery  of  the  command,  and  when  night  came  on 
neither  party  had  any  decided  advantage.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  20th  the  Turks  began  the  fighting  at  Bukova, 
just  north  of  Plevna,  where  they  engaged  the  Russian 
right.  The  Russian  centre  attacked  the  heights  of  Griv- 
itza,  to  the  east  of  Plevna,  and  after  a  hard  struggle  drove 
out  the  Turks  from  some  of  their  positions,  and  forced 
them  fairly  into  Plevna.  On  the  Russian  left  the  Turks 
were  driven  back,  but  not  without  heavy  losses  by  the 
Russians,  and  some  of  the  regiments  suffered  so  severely 
that  they  were  put  in  retreat. 

While  the  Russians  were  considering  the  fight  nearly 
over,  and  thinking  that  another  attack  would  put  them  in 
possession  of  Plevna,  the  streets  of  that  town  seemed  to 
vomit  forth  Turkish  troops  by  the  thousand.     On  and  on 


FIRST  BATTLE  OF  PLEVNA 


[DD    fiUSS/Afl/S 


W^     TURKS 

))    SHIRMISHEftS 


looa    S0»    O 


3000 


SOQO 


\i\' 


Scale    of   yards 


392  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

they  came  till  the  hills  were  covered  with  red  caps,  and 
it  was  speedily  apparent  that  they  far  outnumbered  the 
Russians.  Ten,  twenty,  yes,  forty  thousand  Turks  were 
there  to  confront  the  Russian  column,  less  than  ten 
thousand  strong,  and  having  the  advantage  of  position  on 
the  hills  above  the  Russians.  The  latter  made  a  heroic 
defence,  but  it  was  of  no  use.  Nearly  3,000  men  and  74 
officers  were  killed  or  wounded,  and  so  many  artillery 
horses  were  killed  that  the  Russians  abandoned  seventeen 
caissons  and  several  guns.  The  Russians  retired  to 
Nicopolis,  and  the  Turks  set  to  work  to  strengthen  Plevna, 
as  they  realized  that  the  Russians  would  speedily  attempt 
its  capture. 

A  few  days  sufficed  to  put  Plevna  in  condition  to  resist 
attacks,  as  the  Turks  are  adepts  in  the  construction  of 
fortifications.  Careful  students  of  the  military  operations 
in  Bulgaria  in  1877-78  say  that  the  Turks  far  excelled  the 
Russians  in  this  line  of  work  ;  the  Turkish  soldier  fights  far 
better  behind  entrenchments  than  in  the  open  field,  while 
the  matter  of  protection  does  not  make  a  great  difference 
to  the  Russian.  In  this  campaign  the  Russians  found 
what  they  had  never  before  encountered — the  long-range 
rifles  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks  did  effective  work  before 
the  Russian  breech-loaders  could  get  within  shooting  dis- 
tance. The  Russians  learned  a  lesson  in  intrenching  and 
protecting  themselves  behind  cover,  but  they  did  not 
learn  it  until  after  many  a  good  soldier  had  bitten  the 
dust. 

From  the  20th  to  the  30th  of  July  the  Russians  were  en- 
gaged in  bringing  up  reinforcements  and  getting  ready  for 
another  attack.  An  order  came  for  the  assault  of  the  Turk- 
ish position;  Baron  Krudener  did  not  believe  the  assault 
advisable,  but  the  command  of  the  Grand  Duke  Nicholas 
left  him  no  discretion.  The  baron  and  his  engineers  had 
studied  the  Turkish  position  with  great  care,  and  realized 
that  there  would  be  a  heavy  loss  of  men  in  attacking  the 


FALL    OF  PLFVXA.  393 

Turkish  defences,  behind  which  were  40,000  soldiers  under 
command  of  Osman  Pasha  and  armed  with  the  far-reach- 
ing Peabody  rifle.  The  Turkish  entrenchment  hne  ran 
through  a  series  of  villages,  lying  in  a  semicircular  order 
round  Plevna,  about  five  miles  distant  from  it,  and  touch- 
ing the  river  Vid  on  both  flanks. 

General  Skobeleff  (the  younger)  was  assigned  to  the 
temporary  command  of  the  brigade  of  Cossacks  in  Prince 
Schahofskoy's  division,  and  sent  to  occupy,  if  possible,  the 
town  of  Loftcha,  an  important  position  between  Plevna 
and  the  Balkans.  It  was  a  dangerous  movement  for  the 
brigade,  as  the  march  would  be  on  the  flank  of  the  enemy 
and  likely  to  meet  with  resistance  both  at  its  destination 
and  while  en  route.  But  SkobelefT  was  ready  for  it,  as  he 
was  always  ready  for  any  hazardous  enterprise,  and  in  a 
very  short  time  after  receiving  his  orders  he  was  prepared 
to  move. 

The  night  between  the  29th  and  30th  was  spent  in  com- 
pleting preparations  for  the  assault,  but  on  the  morning 
of  the  latter  day  it  was  decided  to  postpone  it  for  another 
twenty-four  hours  in  order  to  give  the  troops  further  time 
for  rest.  A  council  of  war  was  held  in  the  afternoon,  at 
which  it  was  arranged  that  the  attack  should  be  made 
at  5  A.M.  on  the  31st;  it  was  to  be  concentric,  and  as 
nearly  simultaneous  as  possible.  The  night  was  very  wet 
and  the  troops  could  not  begin  their  advance  before  six 
o'clock  in  consequence  of  the  ground  being  heavily  soaked. 
In  all  there  was  an  attacking  force  of  about  32,000  infan- 
try, with  three  brigades  of  cavalry,  and  160  guns.  Baron 
Krudener  held  the  right,  with  the  whole  31st  division  in 
his  fighting  line,  and  three  regiments  of  the  9tli  division  in 
reserve.  He  was  to  assault  in  two  columns,  with  a  brigade 
in  each  column,  and  fall  upon  the  Turkish  left  flank  from 
Grivitza  towards  the  Vid  River. 

Prince  Schahofskoy  held  the  Russian  left  with  a  fight- 
ing line  of  one  brigade   from   the   32d  division   and  one 


394  DECISTI'E   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

from  the  30th.  He  was  to  assault  the  Turkish  left  from 
Radisova,  and  had  one  brigade  of  the  30th  division  in  re- 
serve at  Pelisat.  Skobeleff  was  on  the  flank  of  the  left 
attack  with  one  brigade  of  Cossacks,  a  battalion  of  in- 
fantry, and  a  battery,  to  watch  the  line  between  Plevna 
and  Loftcha,  and  prevent  a  movement  of  the  Turks  for 
outflanking  Schahofskoy.  General  Lazareff  occupied  a 
similar  position  on  Baron  Krudener's  right  to  prevent  a 
flanking  movement  in  that  direction.  The  odds  against 
the  Russians  were  very  great,  as  they  were  inferior  to  the 
Turks  in  number,  while  the  latter  had  the  advantage  of 
fighting  behind  defences  and  their  arms  were  superior  to 
those  of  the  Russians.  But  the  order  had  been  given  and 
it  must  be  obeyed. 

Another  circumstance  to  the  Russian  disadvantage  was 
that  a  wide  gap  existed  between  Krudener  and  Schahof- 
skoy, and  another  between  the  latter  officer  and  Skobeleff. 
Krudener  and  Schahofskoy  were  fully  two  miles  apart, 
too  far  for  prompt  communication,  especially  when  it  is 
remembered  that  the  Turkish  position  was  in  the  form  of 
a  horse-shoe,  and  a  courier  riding  between  the  two  attack- 
ing columns  would  be  compelled  to  make  a  wide  detour 
to  be  out  of  the  Turkish  line  of  fire.  Thus  the  two 
assaulting  forces  were  practically  independent,  and  a  dis- 
aster to  one  could  not  be  promptly  known  to  the  other, 
while  the  Turks,  with  their  short  interior  line,  would  have 
great  advantages. 

Plevna  stands  in  the  hollow  of  a  valley  with  a  general 
trend  from  north  to  south,  except  where  it  falls  off  in  a 
plain  on  the  old  Sophia  road.  It  is  surrounded  by  hills 
and  rugged  ravines  at  all  points  of  the  compass,  and  every 
inch  of  ground  had  been  utilized  by  the  Turks  for  the 
construction  of  breastworks  and  rifle-pits.  Generally 
speaking,  there  were  three  lines  of  defence,  one  within 
the  other,  so  that  if  the  Turks  should  be  driven  from  the 
outer  line,  they  would  by  no  means  be  conquered.     The 


FALL    OF  FLEl'NA. 


395 


bastions  bristled  with  guns  and  swarmed  with  men,  and  in 
the  httle  plain  at  the  edge  of  the  town,  Osman  Pasha  had 
a  reserve  of  20,000  men,  which  he  could  move  in  any 
desired  direction.  South  of  the  town  runs  the  road  to 
Loftcha,  and  it  was  this  road  which  Skobeleff  was 
appointed  to  watch. 

The  advance  began  simultaneously  on  both  wings  of 
the  Russian  army,  about  seven  o'clock.  By  eight  o'clock 
the  right  centre  had  come  within  range  of  the  Turkish 
fire,  but  it  did  not  halt  until  it  was  within  3,000  yards  of 
the  front  of  the  redoubt  and  could  bring  its  artillery  into 
action.  In  a  little  while  five  batteries  were  in  full  action, 
and  though  the  Turkish  fire  was  rendered  somewhat 
irregular,  it  was  not  by  any  means  stopped.  The  artillery 
was  kept  in  play  for  several  hours,  the  infantry  not  being 
advanced  to  the  assault  until  after  one  o'clock.  Schahof- 
skoy  made  better  progress  than  did  Krudener,  the  former 
being  well  up  to  the  Turkish  front,  while  the  latter  was 
still  pounding  away  at  the  longest  range  of  his  artillery. 
Schahofskoy  grew  impatient  and  ordered  an  assault. 

Away  went  the  Russian  infantry  in  a  solid  line,  straight 
for  the  Turkish  defences.  The  Turkish  artillery  plowed 
the  advancing  line  with  shells,  and  though  numbers  of 
men  fell,  the  advance  was  steadily  maintained.  The 
Turkish  artillery  is  supported  by  that  of  the  Turkish 
infantry,  to  which  the  Russians  reply,  and  the  roar  of  the 
musketry  is  terrific  and  continuous.  The  Russian  line 
becomes  disorganized  during  the  advance,  but  there  is  a 
concentration  about  a  hundred  yards  in  front  of  the 
Turkish  line,  and  then  with  a  wild  shout  the  Russians  are 
into  the  ditch  and  over  the  first  line  of  works.  The  flee- 
ing Turks  are  bayoneted  b)'  the  Muscovites,  and  were 
there  no  second  line  of  works  to  be  carried  the  Russians 
would  be  masters  of  the  situation. 

The  fire  of  the  Turks  was  so  severe  that  the  Russians 
were  unable  to  stand   up  against  it.     There   had   been   a 


396  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

terrible  loss  of  men,  the  ground  was  covered  with  dead 
and  wounded,  the  Peabody  rifles  in  Turkish  hands  poured 
out  volley  after  volley  so  rapidly  that  it  was  literally  a 
rain-storm  of  bullets  that  fell  upon  the  Russians.  The 
bravest  troops  in  the  world  could  not  live  in  such  a  storm, 
and  in  disorder  the  late  assailants  fell  back  across  the  un- 
dulating ground,  over  which  they  had  advanced.  Schahof- 
skoy's  column  was  completely  broken,  and  though  he 
brought  up  his  reserves  and  made  another  attempt,  it  was 
evident  to  all  that  the  capture  of  Plevna  on  this  side  was 
hopeless. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  Russian  line,  Baron  Krudener 
had  begun  the  attack  with  his  artillery,  and  followed  it 
about  two  in  the  afternoon  with  an  advance  of  the  infantry. 
When  they  were  fully  a  mile  distant  from  the  Turkish 
redoubt  the  men  began  falling  before  the  bullets  of  the 
Peabody  rifles,  and  the  column  was  obliged  to  advance  in 
this  way  until  it  had  reached  a  point  where  its  own  Krenk 
rifles  could  be  made  to  tell.  By  the  time  it  reached  the 
foot  of  the  redoubt  the  ranks  had  been  terribly  thinned, 
but  the  Russians  with  a  loud  cheer  carried  the  first  line  of 
works.  They  would  have  been  driven  out  immediately 
had  it  not  been  for  the  rush  of  the  2d  battalion,  which 
came  to  their  support,  and  not  a  moment  too  soon.  The 
Russians  carried  the  second  line  in  the  same  way  as  they 
had  taken  the  first,  and  drove  the  Turks  up  the  slopes  of 
the  Grivitza  redoubt.  From  this  redoubt  a  furious  fire 
was  opened  and  prevented  a  further  advance  of  the  now 
greatly  weakened  Russians.  Nay,  more,  it  turned  the 
advance  into  a  retreat,  and  the  retreat  left  behind  it  great 
numbers  of  dead  and  wounded. 

Later  in  the  day  another  assault  was  made,  but  to  no 
purpose,  other  than  to  add  to  the  number  of  the  killed  and 
disabled.  It  was  a  useless  slaughter  of  brave  men,  with 
scarcely  a  hope  of  success. 

Meantime     Skobeleff    had    pushed    his    reconnaissance 


FALL    OF  PLEVNA.  397 

towards  the  Loftcha  road,  getting  possession  of  the  Green 
Hills  after  considerable  hard  fighting.  He  obtained  a 
position  whence  he  could  look  into  Plevna  and  see  the 
force  that  the  Turks  still  held  in  reserve,  a  force  sufificient 
to  take  the  offensive  and  follow  up  the  Russians  so  vigor- 
ously as  to  make  doubtful  the  escape  of  Schahofskoy's 
shattered  battalions.  After  the  repulse  of  the  Russians 
the  Turks  pushed  forward  several  brigades  that  threatened 
to  separate  Krudener  and  Schahofskoy,  and  at  one  time 
the  latter  was  completely  enveloped  on  three  sides.  Had 
it  not  been  for  Skobeleff  he  might  have  been  caught  on 
the  fourth  side,  and  his  line  of  retreat  altogether  cut  off. 

As  soon  as  Skobeleff  saw  the  Turkish  strength  in  re- 
serve he  comprehended  the  peril  of  the  situation.  Scha- 
hofskoy's left  and  rear  might  be  imperilled  by  a  swing  to 
the  south  of  a  Turkish  division,  and  Skobeleff  determined 
not  to  give  them  a  chance  to  undertake  it.  With  a  few 
squadrons  of  Cossacks,  supported  by  a  light  battery,  he 
dashed  forward,  as  though  ready  to  give  battle.  The 
Turkish  division  which  might  have  cut  off  Schahofskoy  was 
compelled  to  fight  this  insignificant  force,  which  kept  it 
occupied  all  through  the  afternoon. 

Previous  to  this  affair  Skobeleff  had  been  in  disfavor 
with  the  Emperor  in  consequence  of  stories  affecting  his 
conduct  in  Central  Asia,  stories  which  his  enemies  had 
persistently  circulated.  After  the  passage  of  the  Danube 
the  Emperor  embraced  the  other  officers  who  took  part  in 
it,  but  turned  on  his  heel  when  Skobeleff  stood  before 
him.  After  the  brilliant  service  thus  described,  together 
with  other  exploits  that  made  his  name  famous,  the  Em- 
peror made  public  acknowledgment  of  his  appreciation  by 
rising  at  a  banquet  and  proposing  the  health  of  General 
Skobeleff.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  Emperor's  change 
of  heart  was  the  skill  and  daring  displayed  by  Skobeleff 
in  leading  the  assault  upon  the  Turkish  position  in 
Loftcha  on  the  3d  September. 


398  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

The  losses  of  the  Russians  in  the  attack  on  Plevna  on 
the  31st  July  were  170  officers  and  7,136  men.  Of  the 
latter  2,400  were  shot  dead  on  the  battle-field,  and  many 
of  the  wounded  were  murdered  by  the  Bashi-Bazouks. 
The  126th  regiment  that  led  the  assault  under  Schahof- 
skoy  lost  725  killed  and  1,200  wounded,  or  75  percent, 
of  its  total  strength.  The  I2ist  regiment,  which  led  the 
assault  under  Krudener,  lost  almost  as  heavily,  and  nei- 
ther regiment  was  able  to  re-form  until  the  next  morning. 
The  entire  command  was  in  no  condition  to  remain  in 
front  of  Plevna,  as  it  could  not  have  combated  success- 
fully an  attack  by  the  Turks.  Orders  were  given  to  fall 
back  to  the  line  of  the  river  Osma,  which  enters  the 
Danube  near  Nicopolis.  The  repulse  of  Krudener's  col- 
umn threatened  the  safety  of  the  bridge  at  Sistova,  and 
the  movements  of  the  retiring  columns  were  planned  with 
a  view  to  protect  that  important  crossing  over  the  Danube. 

There  was  nothing  for  the  Russians  to  do  but  send  for 
reinforcements,  and  wait  until  they  arrived.  The  ad- 
vance into  Turkey  had  received  a  severe  check,  from  which 
recovery  was  not  easy.  From  the  offensive  the  Russians 
were  thrown  upon  the  defensive,  and  all  as  the  result  of 
a  single  battle  of  six  or  eight  hours'  duration.  Happily 
for  Russia,  the  Turkish  army  had  no  competent  leader,  or 
the  army  of  the  Czar  might  have  been  captured  or 
drowned  in  the  Danube.  The  Turks  had  three  armies  in 
the  field,  with  an  aggregate  strength  of  more  than 
150,000;  they  were  near  enough  together  to  render 
concentration  possible,  and  with  such  an  army  the 
weakened  Russians  would  have  fared  badly.  Mehemet 
AH  was  at  Shumla  with  65,000  men ;  Osman  Pasha 
at  Plevna,  with  50,000,  and  Suleiman  Pasha  at  Yeni 
Zagra,  with  40,000.  Suleiman  was  engaged  in  watching 
Gourko,  and  that  astute  general,  on  hearing  of  the  dis- 
aster at  Plevna,  was  considerably  concerned  for  his  line 
of  retreat. 


FALL    OF  PLEVNA.  399 

The  order  of  the  Czar  for  reinforcements  was  quickly 
issued,  and  resulted  in  the  despatch  of  120,000  regulars  and 
180,000  militia  for  the  front.  With  these  reinforcements 
Avent  460  pieces  of  artillery  with  the  necessary  ammuni- 
tion, and  the  railways  were  taxed  to  the  utmost  of  their 
ability  for  the  transport  of  provisions  and  material  of  war. 
The  militiawere  incorporated  into  the  old  regiments  to  take 
the  places  of  the  men  whose  bodies  were  rotting  on  the 
slopes  of  Plevna,  the  Turks  taking  no  trouble  to  bury  their 
enemy's  dead.  General  Gourko  took  up  his  position  in 
the  Shipka  Pass  whence  Suleiman  Pasha  sought  in  vain  to 
dislodge  him,  losing  far  more  men  than  the  Russians  lost  in 
the  same  time.  Towards  the  end  of  August  the  Russian 
reinforcements  were  assembled  in  such  numbers  that  an  ad- 
vance could  again  be  ventured,  and  accordingly  the  Mus- 
covite columns  were  once  more  pushed  out  into  Bulgaria. 

The  Russians  were  getting  ready  for  their  third  attack 
upon  Plevna,  aided  by  the  Roumanians,  who  had  sent  near- 
ly 40,000  men  into  the  field.  The  first  move  in  the  attack 
was  to  send  Generals  Imeretinsky  and  Skobeleff  to  cap- 
ture Loftcha,  which  was  accomplished  in  fine  style,  the 
Turks  being  driven  out  of  the  forts  at  that  point,  and 
3,000  men  of  their  retreating  column  lanced  or  sabred  by 
the  Cossacks  during  their  flight  for  safety.  Having  Loft- 
cha in  their  possession,  the  Russians  proposed  to  encircle 
Plevna,  and  gradually  draw  in  their  lines  till  they  forced  a 
surrender.  The  total  Russian  and  Roumanian  force  for 
the  attack  of  Plevna  amounted  to  90,000  men  and  440 
guns,  while  the  Turks  were  estimated  to  have  about 
36,000  men — and  Osman  Pasha.  Prince  Charles  of  Rou- 
mania  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  all  the  Russo- 
Roumanian  forces  around  Plevna,  with  General  Zotoff  as 
second  in  command.  The  Grand  Duke  Nicholas  ordered 
an  attack  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible,  and  was  confident 
that  the  great  superiority  in  numbers  would  this  time 
bring  victory.    The  Emperor  and  the  Grand  Duke  Nicho- 


400  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

las  came  in  person  to  witness  the  assault,  establishing  theif 
head-quarters  near  those  of  Prince  Charles. 

The  attack  began  with  a  bombardment  on  the  6th  Sep- 
tember, the  Russians  bringing  a  large  part  of  their  artillery 
into  play,  including  the  heavy  siege  guns  which  had  been 
slowly  dragged  by  oxen  from  the  banks  of  the  Danube  to 
the  points  where  they  were  mounted.  The  Russian  fire 
was  severe,  and  if  it  had  been  directed  against  stone  forti- 
fications would  have  battered  them  down  in  a  little  while. 
But  the  military  engineer  knows  the  comparatively  slight 
effect  of  artillery  upon  earthworks,  and  as  all  the  defences 
of  Plevna  were  simply  the  earth  of  which  the  hills  were 
composed,  the  Russian  fire  did  little  more  than  dismount 
some  of  the  I'urkish  cannon,  and  keep  the  men  confined 
to  their  bomb-proofs,  with  the  exception  of  those  who  were 
working  the  guns  that  replied  to  the  assailants.  The  Turk- 
ish fire  was  slow  but  steady  ;  the  Turks  did  not  seem  in- 
clined to  be  in  a  hurry,  and  they  evidently  felt  that  they 
could  afford  to  let  the  Russians  pile  tons  and  tons  of  iron 
inside  their  works,  and  add  the  solid  masses  of  metal  to  the 
earth  which  formed  the  bastions  and  redoubts. 

Since  the  repulse  of  Krudener  and  Schahofskoy  on  the 
30th  of  July,  Osman  Pasha  had  greatly  strengthened  the 
defences  of  Plevna.  When  Krudener's  assault  failed  there 
were  no  fortifications  on  the  Grivitza  knoll  east  of  Plevna, 
nor  on  the  Krishin  heights  a  mile  and  a  half  southwest  of 
the  town.  The  Green  Hills  which  Skobeleff  carried  and 
held  for  a  time  during  the  second  battle  of  Plevna  were 
also  without  fortifications  at  that  time,  but  by  the  1st  of 
September  all  these  commanding  positions  had  been 
crowned  with  works  and  were  connected  by  a  series  of  rifle- 
pits  and  trenches.  It  was  evident  that  the  Turkish  engi- 
neers were  thoroughly  competent  for  their  work,  and  they 
had  thrown  around  Plevna  a  line  of  defences  that  would 
certainly  give  the  Russians  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  And 
so  the  sequel  proved. 


FALL    OF  PLEVNA.  40I 

The  bombardment  lasted  with  varying  intervals  of  a  few- 
hours  at  a  time  from  the  6th  to  the  i  ith  September,  com- 
paratively little  use  being  made  of  the  infantry  and  cavalry 
on  most  parts  of  the  line.  The  general  positions  were 
much  the  same  as  at  the  time  of  the  second  battle  of 
Plevna,  Skobeleff  having  the  extreme  left.  The  Rouman- 
ian army  was  posted  among  the  hills  to  the  northwest  of 
Grivitza,  while  Krudener  with  the  9th  corps  was  to  the 
south  of  Grivitza,  with  his  line  extending  round  to  Radis- 
chevo.  General  Kryloff  with  the  4th  corps  was  to  the  left 
of  Baron  Krudener,  while  General  Skobeleff,  as  before 
stated,  held  the  extreme  left,  which  extended  r<nin(l  to  the 
Loftcha  road. 

The  Russians  were  disappointed  at  the  sliglit  effect  of 
their  artillery  on  the  Turkish  redoubts, especially  where  the 
siege  train  under  Krudener  had  been  pounding  all  day  at 
the  Grivitza  defences."  On  the  extreme  left  Skobeleff  was 
impatient  at  the  slow  work  of  the  artillery,  and  deter- 
mined to  make  use  of  his  other  forces.  After  firing  awhile 
with  his  heavy  guns  at  the  redoubts  on  the  Krishin  heights, 
he  closed  in  within  short  range,  and  then  sent  the  5th 
and  8th  regiments  to  attack  the  Turkish  infantry,  which 
was  deployed  along  the  line  of  the  Green  Hills.  He  drove 
back  the  Turks  until  he  was  fairly  within  range  of 
the  guns  of  Krishin,  which  of  course  made  his  position  un- 
tenable, and  he  was  forced  to  retire.  At  one  time  he  was 
within  1,500  yards  of  Plevna,  but  he  could  not  retain  his 
position  as  long  as  the  Turks  were  still  in  possession  of 
their  redoubts.  But  he  hung  on  to  the  southern  knoll  of 
the  Green  Hills  in  spite  of  repeated  attempts  to  dislodge 
him. 

The  8th  and  9th  passed  without  any  important  change 
in  the  relations  of  the  contending  armies.  The  Turks  on 
the  Grivitza  ridge  did  not  reply  to  the  Russian  fire  on  the 
9th,  and  consequently  Prince  Charles  thought  they  might 
have  been  driven  out.  or  possibly  the  guns  were  disabled- 


■  402  DECISIVE  BA  TTLES  SINCE  WA  TERLOO. 

He  ordered  an  assault  with  infantry,  but  it  was  met  with 
such  a  heavy  fire  of  small-arms  that  the  Russians  were 
driven  back  before  they  reached  the  foot  of  the  earth- 
works. It  was  afterwards  learned  that  the  Turks  had 
ceased  firing  because  they  were  short  of  ammunition,  and 
wished  to  utilize  as  much  as  possible  the  scanty  stock  that 
remained  to  them.  On  the  loth  their  batteries  were 
nearly  all  silenced,  but  any  movement  on  the  part  of  the 
Russian  infantry  showed  that  the  Turks  were  fully  alive 
to  the  situation,  and  when  the  occasion  demanded,  their 
works  swarmed  with  men. 

After  repulsing  the  infantry  attack  on  the  Grivitza  re- 
doubt, the  Turks  made  an  assault  upon  SkobelefT,  at  the 
Green  Hills,  but  were  driven  back  in  disorder  by  the  in- 
fantry commanded  by  that  dashing  officer.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  loth,  Skobeleff  determined  to  occupy  the 
second  knoll  in  front  of  the  Krishin  redoubt,  the  place  he 
had  taken  and  briefly  held  on  the  first  day  of  the  attack. 
His  men  made  a  rush,  and  then  rapidly  threw  up  an  earth- 
work behind  which  they  could  bid  defiance  to  the  Turkish 
riflemen.  As  soon  as  the  earthwork  was  completed 
Skobeleff  brought  his  guns  forward  and  made  ready  for 
the  work  of  the  next  day — the  grand  assault. 

The  plan  was  to  open  the  day  with  a  heavy  bombard- 
ment, which  was  to  be  continued  until  three  in  the  after- 
noon, the  time  set  for  the  infantry  assault.  But  all 
through  the  afternoon  and  night  of  the  loth  it  rained 
heavily,  and  the  ground  became  a  mass  of  mud  in  which 
it  was  difficult  to  move.  In  the  morning  of  the  nth 
there  was  a  heavy  fog  which  hung  over  the  entire  valley; 
the  Turks  took  advantage  of  it  by  pushing  out  a  column 
of  infantry  to  drive  Skobeleff  from  the  position  he  had 
taken  the  previous  day,  but  they  were  unsuccessful.  The 
fighting  was  not  severe,  as  the  Turks  retired  on  finding 
their  opponents  were  ready  for  them,  and  the  Russians 
did  not  pursue  through  fear  of  falling  into  a  trap.     Both 


nn  Cessuckt 


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Scale   of  Milts 


403 


404  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

sides  evidently  wished  to  wait  until  the  fog  lifted,  but  by 
ten  o'clock  Skobeleff  grew  impatient,  and  sent  his  men  to 
capture  a  third  knoll  still  nearer  the  Krishin  redoubt, 
though  then  protected  from  its  fire  by  the  fog. 

Skobeleff's  men  were  somewhat  disturbed  by  the  Turks 
in  the  neighboring  rifle-pits,  and  there  was  a  good  deal  of 
firing  between  them.  While  this  fight  was  going  on,  the 
Turks  made  a  sortie  in  the  direction  of  Kryloff's  front ; 
under  cover  of  the  fog  they  were  fairly  within  the  Russian 
lines  before  they  were  perceived,  but  as  soon  as  the  firing 
began  they  were  promptly  repulsed.  The  63d  regiment 
met  and  defeated  them  ;  it  was  joined  by  the  117th,  and 
together  they  not  only  drove  the  Turks  back,  but  followed 
them  into  their  redoubts.  Here  they  found  themselves 
caught  in  a  trap,  as  the  redoubts  were  full  of  men,  and  a 
terrible  fire  of  bullets  was  poured  on  the  Russians  from 
all  sides.  Fully  half  the  men  and  most  of  the  ofificers 
were  killed  or  wounded,  and  only  a  small  contingent  out 
of  those  two  regiments  managed  to  make  its  way  back  to 
the  Russian  lines.  It  was  a  severe  blow  to  Kryloff,  as  it 
completely  paralyzed  his  left  wing. 

The  Roumanians  with  two  divisions  attacked  the  Griv- 
itza  redoubt  from  the  north  and  east,  while  a  Russian 
brigade  attacked  it  from  the  south.  In  spite  of  the  assault 
on  three  sides,  the  Turks  were  able  to  hurl  back  their  as- 
sailants. By  some  miscalculation  the  Roumanian  and 
Russian  assaults  were  not  delivered  simultaneously ;  there 
was  an  interval  of  half  an  hour  between  the  assaults  of 
the  two  Roumanian  divisions,  while  the  Russian  assault 
was  still  half  an  hour  later.  The  columns  were  beaten  in 
detail  and  with  heavy  loss,  especially  in  officers,  until 
about  five  o'clock  when  the  redoubt  was  carried.  The 
losses  of  the  allies  in  the  afternoon's  battle  were  nearly 
4,000,  including  78  officers.  Repeated  assaults  were  made 
upon  redoubt  No.  10,  but  though  they  lost  no  officers 
and  5,200  men,  the  Russians  were  unable  to  carry  it.  The 


FALL    OF  PLEVNA.  405 

Turks  stoutly  defended  their  position  and  made  every 
shot  tell. 

Skobeleff  was  for  a  time  more  successful  than  the  other 
generals  directing  the  attack,  as  he  clung  to  the  positions 
he  had  gained  in  spite  of  the  Turkish  fire  that  raked  his 
lines  from  three  directions.  Mounted  on  a  white  horse, 
and  dressed  in  a  white  uniform,  such  as  he  always  wore 
when  going  into  battle,  he  led  the  charge  against  a 
double  redoubt  in  the  bend  of  the  Loftcha  road,  close  to 
Plevna.  All  his  escort  were  killed  or  wounded,  his  horse 
was  killed  beneath  him,  and  his  sword  was  cut  in  two  by 
a  cannon-shot.  But  onward  he  pushed,  and  carried  the 
redoubt,  losing  3,000  men  in  the  effort. 

And  now  came  the  question  of  holding  the  redoubt.  It 
was  taken  about  six  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  Skobeleff 
sent  immediately  for  reinforcements,  but  they  never  came. 
All  through  the  night  he  retained  his  position,  and  in  the 
morning  he  was  heavily  assailed  by  masses  of  Turkish  in- 
fantry, who  advanced  under  cover  of  the  artillery  fire  from 
the  Krishin  redoubt.  The  Turks  were  repulsed,  but  the)' 
returned  to  the  assault  as  soon  as  they  could  re-form  and 
fresh  troops  could  join  them.  Five  times  did  they  attack 
Skobeleff's  rapidly  diminishing  forces,  and  five  times  were 
they  driven  back.  Towards  the  close  of  the  day  the)- 
attacked  for  the  sixth  time,  and  as  their  battalions  came 
surging  on,  Skobeleff  was  at  his  tent  on  a  wooded  hill 
near  the  redoubt.  When  word  came  that  the  Turks  were 
assaulting,  he  mounted  his  horse  and  rode  towards  the 
redoubt,  out  of  which  his  men  came  streaming  in  a  disor- 
ganized, straggling  mass.  They  were  dying  of  thirst, 
hunger,  and  fatigue,  and  worn  out  with  almost  continuous 
fighting  for  forty-eight  hours.  The  repulse  of  the  Russians 
at  other  parts  of  the  line  had  enabled  the  Turks  to  gather 
an  overwhelming  force  to  drive  Skobeleff  out  of  the  re- 
doubt, and  at  last  they  succeeded.  One  bastion  was  held 
to  the  last  by  a  young  of^cer,  who  was  slaughtered  with 
all  his  men  around  him. 


406  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

A  correspondent  of  the  Daily  News  met  Skobeleff  just 
after  this  occurrence,  and  thus  describes  him  : 

He  was  in  a  fearful  state  of  excitement  and  fury.  His  uni- 
form was  covered  with  mud  and  fihh  ;  his  sword  broken  ;  his 
Cross  of  St,  George  twisted  around  On  his  shoulder  ;  his  face 
black  with  powder  and  smoke  ;  his  eyes  haggard  and  blood- 
shot, and  his  voice  quite  gone.  I  never  before  saw  such  a 
picture  of  battle  as  he  presented.  I  saw  him  again  in  his  tent 
at  night.  He  was  quite  calm  and  collected.  He  said  :  "  I  have 
done  my  best ;  I  could  do  no  more.  My  detachment  is  half 
destroyed  ;  my  regiments  do  not  exist  ;  1  have  no  officers  left  ; 
they  sent  me  no  reinforcements,  and  I  have  lost  three  guns." 
"  Why  did  they  refuse  you  reinforcements  ?  "  I  asked  ;  '*  who 
was  to  blame  ?  "  "I  blame  nobody,"  he  replied.  "  It  is  the  will 
of  God." 

Military  critics  commenting  on  this  battle  say  that  the 
Russians  had  abundant  troops  that  had  not  been  under 
fire,  and  there  was  no  real  difficulty  about  sending  Skobe- 
leff suf^cient  reinforcements  to  enable  him  to  hold  his 
position.  If  he  could  have  held  it  until  the  heavy  artillery 
was  placed  in  position,  the  captuie  of  Plevna  was  practi- 
cally assured.  But  the  Russian  commanders  had  found 
themselves  so  severely  handled  that  they  had  enough  of 
fighting,  and  determined  that  Plevna  could  be  taken  by 
siege  better  than  by  assault.  The  Russian  killed  and 
wounded  were  estimated  at  18,000  to  20,000,  and  the 
Turkish  about  5,000  less  than  the  Russian, 

The  capture  by  assault  having  been  given  up,  the  Rus- 
sians sat  down  to  invoke  the  aid  of  that  engine,  more 
powerful  than  all  their  batteries,  the  engine  of  starvation. 
Osman  Pasha  was  to  be  starved  into  surrender,  and  for 
this  purpose  the  Guards  were  called  from  Russia  and  the 
army  of  the  Czar  was  strengthened  in  the  same  way  it  had 
been  strengthened  after  the  disaster  of  the  second  attack 
on  Plevna,  One  by  one  the  roads  leading  into  Plevna  were 
occupied,  but  it  was  nearly  two  months  from  the  terrible 


408  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

battle  of  the  I  ith  September  before  the  routes  for  supplies 
and  reinforcements  destined  for  Osman  Pasha  could  be 
secured.  The  investment  was  completed  on  the  3d  No- 
vember;  120,000  Russians  and  Roumanians  were  around 
Plevna,  and  the  siege  works  were  pushed  with  all  the  skill 
and  vigor  that  engineering  science  and  autocratic  power 
could  bring  to  bear.  Osman  Pasha  and  his  40,000  soldiers 
were  shut  up  in  Plevna  and  cut  off  from  all  communication 
with  the  rest  of  the  Turkish  forces. 

Elsewhere  the  Turkish  armies  were  busy  with  movements 
for  the  relief  of  Plevna,  and  sanguinary  encounters  took 
place  between  them  and  the  Russian  forces  in  the  valley 
of  the  Lorn  and  among  the  Balkans.  But  as  all  these 
enterprises  failed  of  their  object,  though  the  Russians  were 
made  to  sufTer  severely,  they  did  not  affect  the  one  great 
object  in  view — the  capture  of  Plevna. 

Starvation  was  at  work  from  the  3d  of  November,  when 
the  investment  was  completed.  Spies  brought  intelligence 
that  the  men  were  on  reduced  rations  and  every  available 
article  of  food  was  being  devoured.  Ammunition  was 
scarce,  and  the  Turks  rarely  replied  to  the  Russian  artillery 
fire.  It  became  known  to  the  Russians  that  Osman  Pasha 
was  preparing  for  a  sortie,  and  the  Russian  trenches  were 
kept  full  of  men  day  and  night.  All  the  outposts  were 
doubled  or  trebled,  and  every  precaution  was  taken  against 
surprise. 

On  the  9th  December  a  spy  brought  the  news  that 
three  days'  rations  had  been  issued  to  the  troops  in  Plev- 
na, together  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  cartridges  and  a 
new  pair  of  sandals  to  each  man.  About  ten  o'clock  at 
night  another  spy  came  in  and  said  that  the  Turkish 
troops  were  concentrating  near  the  bridge  over  the  Vid, 
and  about  the  same  time  a  telegram  from  the  Russians 
on  the  other  side  of  Plevna  reported  the  movements  of  a 
great  number  of  lights  in  the  town,  an  unusual  occurrence. 
Evidentlv  the  hour  of  the  sortie  was  approaching. 


OUTLINB   MAT 

PBEBBNTIIIO  CHANCES  IH  EUBOPC 

BY  THE  TBEATT  OF  BERLIN 


9AH  BTE£AN<r——— — 

ALTEJUmOMS  A^HCEXrrrf  BTT  TnCTkTYOF 

MtXLm — 


remnvKf  cfqf.o  n  jjusz/a- 

■  t  JJVUKSfilS — 'I 


BOUNOAKYOr 


w 


409 


4IO  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO 

At  eight  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  loth  another 
spy  brought  the  news  that  the  Krishin  redoubt  had  been 
abandoned.  He  was  so  confident  of  the  truth  of  his  as- 
sertion that  he  offered  to  go  along  with  the  Russians  and 
lead  the  way  into  the  redoubt  at  the  risk  of  being  killed 
if  his  statement  were  false.  General  Skobeleff  ordered  a 
cautious  advance  in  the  direction  of  the  Krishin  redoubt, 
and  in  a  short  time  the  Russians  were  in  possession  of  it, 
no  resistance  being  offered.  It  was  now  certain  that  the 
sortie  was  to  begin  at  daybreak,  and  word  was  sent  along 
the  whole  Russian  line  to  be  ready  for  it.  Skobeleff  or- 
dered the  captured  positions  to  be  put  immediately  in  a 
state  of  defence  in  case  the  Turks  should  fail  in  the  sor- 
tie and  then  try  to  retake  them. 

In  the  gray  of  the  morning  the  stillness  was  broken 
suddenly  by  the  booming  of  some  thirty  or  forty  cannon, 
that  announced  the  aggressive  action  of  the  Turks.  They 
were  trying  to  cut  their  way  out  of  Plevna,  and  this  was 
the  opening  of  the  movement.  During  the  night  they 
had  withdrawn  their  troops  from  their  various  positions, 
all  the  way  from  Grivitza  to  the  Green  Hills,  and  concen- 
trated for  one  last  attempt.  If  they  should  fail,  surrender 
was  inevitable,  for  it  would  be  impossible  for  them  to 
retake  the  Krishin  and  other  redoubts,  into  which  the 
Russians  had  thrown  their  own  men  and  were  ready  to 
pour  a  destructive  fire  all  over  Plevna. 

The  Russian  artillery  replied  with  great  promptness, 
and  then  came  the  rattle  of  the  infanti-y  fire  as  the  Turk- 
ish masses  deployed  and  came  out  to  the  front  of  the 
Russian  line.  The  attack  was  directed  against  the  posi- 
tion of  the  grenadiers  north  of  the  Sophia  road,  and  was 
made  under  cover  of  the  wagon-train,  which  the  Turks 
brought  with  them  as  a  sort  of  moving  breastwork.  So 
many  of  the  bullocks  drawing  the  wagons  were  killed  or 
frightened  into  running  away  that  this  strategy  did  not 
long  avail,  and  then  the  Turks  made  a  dash  upon  the  line 


FALL    OF  PLEVNA.  411 

of  trenches  held  by  the  Siberian  regiment.  It  was  Hke 
one  of  Skobelef^'s  charges,  and  was  so  irhpetuous  that  the 
Turks  carried  the  hne  of  trenches  and  the  batteries, 
bayoneting  the  artillerymen  and  capturing  all  the  guns 
inside  the  line  of  works.  The  Siberian  regiment  was 
almost  annihilated,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  promptness 
of  the  Russian  generals,  who  immediately  brought  up  the 
first  brigade  of  gifenadiers,  the  attempt  to  break  the  Rus- 
sian investment  might  have  succeeded. 

The  fighting  was  as  fierce  as  any  that  had  taken  place 
in  all  the  previous  struggles  for  the  possession  of  Plevna ; 
the  Turks  held  on  to  the  guns  with  all  the  obstinacy  of 
their  race,  and  equally  obstinate  were  the  Russians  in 
their  efforts  to  retake  them.  The  Russian  grenadiers 
poured  swiftly  in  ;  by  half-past  eight  o'clock  the  sortie 
was  repulsed,  and  the  few  Turks  that  remained  alive  and 
uninjured  were  fleeing  back  in  the  direction  of  the  town. 

The  sortie  had  been  stopped,  but  the  fighting  continued 
for  several  hours,  though  there  were  no  great  losses  after 
the  contest  for  the  possession  of  the  battery,  as  both  par- 
ties were  under  cover.  The  Russians  expected  the  Turks 
would  make  another  assault  and  were  determined  to  de- 
feat it,  while  the  Turks  were  apprehensive  that  the  Rus- 
sians would  charge  and  drive  them  into  the  gorge  where 
the  town  stands. 

Towards  noon  the  firing  gradually  died  away  and  only  an 
occasional  shot  broke  the  stillness.  About  half-past  twelve 
a  white  flag  was  displayed  on  the  Turkish  front  and  was 
greeted  with  a  loud  shout  of  triumph  that  rolled  along 
the  entire  Russian  lines.  The  long  agony  was  over,  and 
Plevna  was  about  to  be  surrendered. 

A  Turkish  officer  bearing  a  white  flag  rode  out  towards 
the  Russian  lines,  and  after  some  parley  returned  to  Plev- 
na to  send  out  an  officer  of  Osman  Pasha's  staff.  The 
latter  came  and  was  met  by  General  Skobeleff,  and  after 
a  little  delay  the  surrender  of  Plevna  was  made.     It  was 


412  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

an  unconditional  surrender.  In  fact,  under  the  circum- 
stances, neither  side  could  have  expected  less.  The  Grand 
Duke  and  all  the  Russian  generals  complimented  Osman 
Pasha  on  the  splendid  defence  he  had  made,  and  he  was 
treated  with  every  courtesy  that  could  be  shown  to  one 
whom  they  earnestly  respected  for  his  valor  and  his  mili- 
tary genius. 

With  the  fall  of  Plevna  and  the  surrender  of  its  garrison 
of  40,000  men,  the  Turkish  opposition  practically  ceased. 
Within  a  month  from  that  event  General  Gourko  had  cap- 
tured Sophia,  and  General  Radetsky  took  the  village  of 
Shipka,  in  the  Shipka  Pass,  and  compelled  the  surrender 
of  a  Turkish  army  of  23,000  men,  4  pashas,  92  guns,  and 
10  standards.  Gourko  and  Skobeleff  advanced  upon  Phil- 
ippopolis  by  different  routes  and  narrowly  missed  captur- 
ing Suleiman  Pasha  with  his  entire  force.  Skobeleff  ad- 
vanced upon  Adrianople,  which  the  Turks  abandoned,  and 
Slivno  and  Yeni-Zagra  were  occupied,  all  inside  of  thirty 
days,  Plevna  had  made  the  Russians  the  masters  of  the 
situation  and  they  advanced  upon  Constantinople,  the 
Turks  retiring  before  them,  and  occasionally  making  a 
feeble  resistance. 

Turkey  asked  the  mediation  of  England,  and  finally,  de- 
spairing of  her  aid,  signed  an  armistice  that  became  the 
basis  of  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  which  was  signed  by 
the  treaty  powers  on  the  3d  of  March,  1878.  The  treaty 
guaranteed  the  erection  of  Bulgaria  into  an  autonomous 
tributary  principality,  with  a  national  Christian  govern- 
ment and  a  native  militia  ;  the  independence  of  Monte- 
negro, with  an  increase  of  territory ;  the  independence  of 
Roumania  and  Servia  with  a  territorial  indemnity  ;  the 
introduction  of  administrative  reforms  into  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  ;  and  lastly,  an  indemnity  in  money  to  Rus- 
sia for  the  cost  of  the  war. 

By  the  subsequent  Congress  of  Berlin  Russia  was  strip- 
ped of  some  of  the  fruits  of  her  conquest,  Turkey  receiv- 


'^^ 


TEKKCtOBY  CUMMtn  BY   TnZKTY  OF  SKV STEfTlffO 
f  CEDCO         .  «  -        BCRLIN 

Ji  -  TO      />£flBfA 

PREVIjOUS  BOUA/OAfty  ***** 


w 


so 


AOO 


Scale  of  Milts 
OUTLINE   MAP 
FBE8ENTINC  CHANCES  IN  AHA 
Br  THB  TREATY  OF  BERLIN 


413 


414 


DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 


ing  back  again  about  2,000,000  of  population  and  30,000 
square  miles  of  territory.  The  treaty  of  San  Stefano  was 
modified  in  several  other  features, — Batoum  was  made  a 
free  commercial  port,  and  the  treaty  of  Paris  was  held  to 
be  maintained  in  all  the  points  where  it  was  not  modified 
by  the  Congress  of  Berlin.  Altogether  Russia  had  good 
reason  to  complain  that  she  was  not  allowed  to  enjoy 
what  she  had  won  by  the  force  of  arms,  and  the  way  was 
left  open  for  troubles  in  the  not  distant  future. 

Russia  is  said  to  have  lost  nearly  100,000  men  in  the 
campaign  of  1877-78,  and  to  have  expended  not  less  than 
;!{^  1 20,000,000.  The  cost  of  the  war  on  the  Turkish  side, 
both  in  men  and  money,  is  said  to  have  been  about  three 
fourths  that  of  the  Russians,  but  the  exact  figures  have 
never  been  published  on  either  side. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 


CAPTURE    OF    GEOK    TEPE — 1881. 


Down  to  1869  the  Russian  advance  into  Central  Asia 
was  conducted  from  Orenburg  and  the  various  military 
posts  of  Western  Siberia.  Year  by  year  the  frontier  was 
pushed  to  the  southward,  and  the  map  of  the  Asiatic  pos- 
sessions of  Russia  required  frequent  revision.  The  long 
chain  of  the  Altai  Mountains  passed  into  the  control  of 
the  Czar  ;  the  Aral  Sea  became  a  Russian  lake  ;  and  vast 
territories  with  a  sparse  population  were  brought  under 
Russian  rule.  As  mentioned  previously,  in  the  account 
of  the  fall  of  Khiva,  most  of  this  conquest  was  a  bloodless 
one,  as  it  was  fought  chiefly  by  the  diplomatist,  though 
backed  ahva}'s  by  the  military  power. 

The  Kirghese,  who  occupy  the  region  immediately  south 
of  the  Altai  Mountains,  and  are  still  found  on  the  south- 
ern confines  of  the  Baraba  Steppe,  are  broken  into  many 
independent  tribes ;  they  are  nomadic  in  their  habits, 
wandering  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  pasturage  for 
their  immense  flocks  and  herds.  In  winter  they  frequent 
the  valleys  among  the  outlying  hills  of  the  Altai  Moun- 
tains, and  in  summer  descend  upon  the  plains.  Man)'  of 
the  tribes  live  altogether  on  the  plains,  and  their  range 
covers  many  thousands  of  square  miles. 

Quarrels  were  numerous  among  them,  chiefl}-  growing 
out  of  disputes  about  pasturage  or  water,  and  in  these 
quarrels  tiic  Russians  interfered,  both  in  the  interest  of 
humanity  and  the  spread  of  their  power.     They  usually 

415 


41 6  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

took  the  side  of  the  weaker  party,  who  was  ahvays  glad  to 
have  their  assistance,  but  found  when  too  late  that  he  was 
altogether  dependent  upon  them.  In  case  of  their  retire- 
ment he  would  be  subject  to  the  revenge  of  his  late  antag- 
onists, and  whenever  the  Russians  proposed  to  go  away 
they  were  earnestly  urged  to  remain.  Thus  they  obtained 
a  secure  footing  in  the  country  and  speedily  became  mas- 
ters of  the  situation. 

Frequently  the  disputes  between  the  tribes  led  to  raids 
for  purposes  of  plunder;  quite  as  frequently  one  tribe 
would  make  a  raid  on  another  with  which  it  was  at  peace 
for  the  sole  object  of  robbery.  Attacks  were  generally 
made  at  night,  and  if  they  were  successful  the  robbers 
would  drive  off  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  tribe  assailed. 
Men,  women,  and  children  were  taken  to  be  sold  into 
slavery  in  the  markets  of  Khiva  or  Bokhara,  or  kept 
among  their  captors.  These  slaves  were  treated  with  the 
greatest  cruelty  ;  they  were  severely  beaten  for  the  slight- 
est offence  or  failure  to  perform  what  had  been  ordered, 
were  poorly  fed,  and  often  compelled  to  wear  chains. 
They  were  generally  maimed  for  life,  by  means  of  a  horse- 
hair run  through  the  heel,  in  order  to  prevent  their  escape 
from  captivity. 

All  this  business  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  Russians 
when  they  occupied  the  Kirghese  country.  They  com- 
pelled the  tribes  to  live  peaceably  with  each  other,  and  if 
any  dispute  arose  about  water  or  pasturage  it  was  referred 
to  the  Russian  commander  of  the  district  for  adjustment. 
If  one  tribe  made  a  raid  on  another  it  was  compelled  to 
give  up  the  stolen  property,  and  furthermore  a  heavy  fine 
was  levied  upon  the  raiders — half  going  to  the  Russian 
government  and  half  to  the  injured  tribe.  The  Russians 
generally  made  the  fine  heavy  enough  to  furnish  a  per- 
centage for  the  officers  who  took  the  trouble  to  adjust  the 
differences. 

Russian  goods  were  introduced   among  these  nomadic 


CAPTURE    OF  GEOK  TEPE.  417 

people,  markets  were  opened,  and  every  facility  was 
offered  for  the  increase  of  commerce.  Long  caravans 
were  constantly  in  motion  between  Orenburg,  Scmpol.i- 
tinsk,  and  other  points  in  Russian  territory,  and  Khiva,  Bok- 
hara, and  Samarcand,  far  to  the  east.  They  traversed  the 
Kirghese  and  Turcoman  country,  and  wherever  they  went 
they  found  a  material  difTerence  in  the  matter  of  safety, 
whether  the  territory  was  under  Russian  rule  or  remained 
independent.  If  the  latter,  the  caravans  were  constantly 
liable  to  attack  and  plunder;  if  the  former,  the)'  were  in- 
variably free  from  molestation. 

The  capture  of  Bokhara,  Samarcand,  and  Khiva  reduced 
the  slave  markets  of  the  Turcoman  raiders,  but  by  no 
means  put  an  end  to  their  plundering  expeditions.  The 
independent  Turcomans  were  estimated  to  be  about  a 
million  in  number,  divided  into  several  tribes,  who  some- 
times warred  upon  each  other,  but  constantly  upon  the 
Persians  and  other  peaceable  people.  In  the  wars  between 
Khiva  and  Bokhara,  Samarcand  and  Kokan,  they  took  sides 
with  those  who  would  pay  the  most  for  thciir  services. 

Down  to  very  recently  the  whole  of  Northern  Persia 
was  subject  to  Turcoman  raids,  and  agriculture  w^as  car- 
ried on  under  great  dif^cultics.  The  raids  were  some- 
times carried  up  to  within  100  miles  of  Teheran,  or  about 
500  miles  inside  the  Persian  boundary.  They  were  or- 
ganized months  beforehand,  and  sometimes  as  many  as 
5,000  or  6,000  men  were  engaged  in  a  single  enterprise. 
A  raid  was  called  a  "  chapow  "  by  the  Persians  ;  in  the 
Turcoman  language  it  was  an  "  alaman." 

A  Turcoman  leader  would  announce  his  intention  of 
making  an  alaman,  but  the  route  was  always  kept  secret 
through  fear  of  betrayal.  The  Turcomans  are  splendid 
horsemen,  and  while  organizing  an  expedition  they  put 
their  steeds  under  a  system  of  training  to  enable  them  to 
make  long  and  swift  marches  whenever  occasion  required. 
When  every  thing  was  ready  the  party  started  ;  it  travelled 


41 8  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

slowly  until  it  reached  the  Persian  frontier,  and  was  often 
weeks  on  the  way. 

Passing  the  frontier,  the  hard  work  of  the  campaign 
began.  The  region  selected  for  the  raid  was  reached 
as  soon  as  possible  ;  then  the  invading  force  was  di- 
vided into  small  parties,  and  each  had  a  particular  vil- 
lage assigned  to  it.  Their  movements  were  made  so  as 
to  catch  the  people  at  work  in  the  fields,  and  capture  the 
cattle  before  they  could  be  driven  into  a  place  of  safety. 
Not  only  the  cattle,  but  all  the  men,  women,  and  children 
that  could  be  seized  were  taken.  The  old  and  useless 
were  slaughtered  without  mercy  ;  the  young  and  able- 
bodied  were  carried  off  to  be  sold  into  slavery.  A  wealthy 
Persian  was  held  for  a  heavy  ransom,  but  the  poor  man 
had  no  chance  of  redemption.  The  plundering  was  kept 
up  as  long  as  there  was  any  thing  to  steal,  and  then  the 
expedition  returned  to  its  own  territory.  Sometimes  in 
a  single  raid  as  many  as  a  hundred  thousand  horses,  sheep, 
goats,  and  other  animals  were  captured,  and  a  thousand  or 
more  people  were  carried  into  slaver}'. 

The  Persian  government  made  very  little  provision 
for  the  protection  of  its  people.  The  Persian  troops  were 
in  the  cities  and  large  towns,  which  the  Turcomans  never 
attacked,  and  as  there  was  no  telegraph  through  the  coun- 
try, the  raiders  almost  invariably  got  to  a  safe  distance 
before  a  pursuit  could  be  started.  Very  often  the  Persian 
officials  on  the  frontier  connived  at  the  raids,  and  the 
people  were  forced  to  rely  upon  themselves  for  protection, 
which  was  almost  wholly  of  a  defensive  character. 

Their  villages  are  built  of  mud,  and  are  practically  forts. 
The  walls  are  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  thick,  and  about 
forty  in  height ;  they  form  a  quadrangle,  or  circle,  w^herc 
cattle  can  be  driven  at  night,  and  there  is  only  a  single 
door-way,  too  low  to  permit  the  passage  of  a  man  on 
horseback.  The  raiders  never  stop  to  besiege  a  place ;  all 
tK^'ir  work  *,s  done  by  a  sudden  dash,  and  the  Turcoman 


TS 


^ 


TEKKE    TURCOMAN 
rQfKTHZ.SS 


•^^'fe^t,ite)»i«: 


SKOBCLcrrs  boutc  or  march  « 

HUF>0PATAIN^5  ■  ■  >         +<♦■»♦  +  +  * 


PLf\N  or  THE  EXPEDITION 

ON 

CEOK    TEPE 


419 


420  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

would  never  think  of  dismounting  to  pass  the  low  door- 
way. Inside  there  is  a  stone  door  which  may  be  closed  to 
prevent  ingress  ;  it  is  thick  and  strong,  and  once  inside  of 
their  mud  village  the  people  are  safe. 

To  further  protect  themselves,  they  had  towers  of  ref- 
uge in  their  fields,  where  they  could  run  in  case  of  danger. 
Some  of  the  towers  had  ladders  on  the  outside,  which  were 
drawn  up  as  the  Turcomans  approached,  while  others  were 
entered  by  narrow  door-ways  similar  to  those  of  the  villa- 
ges. On  the  hills  there  were  signal-towers  where  watch- 
men were  stationed  ;  when  the  dust  of  an  approaching 
alaman  was  seen,  the  watchmen  gave  warning  and  the 
people  fled  for  safety. 

Thus  these  Turcoman  thieves  hampered  agriculture,  and 
they  also  restricted  commerce  by  plundering  the  caravans. 
Merchants  travelled  with  an  armed  escort  and  in  large 
numbers.  Even  this  did  not  save  them  from  attack,  as  a 
great  caravan  was  unwieldy,  and  often  the  robbers  would 
dart  in  and  seize  a  few  camels  laden  with  merchandise, 
while  the  escort  was  so  far  away  in  another  part  of  the 
line  that  it  could  not  rush  to  attack  the  marauders  until 
they  had  finished  their  work  and  departed. 

The  Turcoman  country  extends  westward  as  far  as  the 
Caspian  Sea.  To  put  a  stop  to  the  organized  thieving  of 
the  Turcomans,  and  more  especially  to  increase  the  extent 
of  territory  under  their  control,  and  open  the  land  route 
to  India;  the  Russians  occupied  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Caspian  in  1869.  A  military  expedition  was  landed  at 
Krasnovodsk  where  it  built  a  fort,  and  took  permanent 
possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of  the  Czar.  Points 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Caspian  had  been  occupied 
during  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  again  during  the 
reign  of  Nicholas  I.,  but  the  occupation  of  the  region  was 
only  temporary.  The  force  which  established  itself  at 
Krasnovodsk  consisted  of  a  few  companies  of  infantry,  two 
sotnias  of  Cossacks,  and  half  a  dozen  pieces  of  artillery. 


CAPTURE   OF  GEOK  TEPE.  42  I 

Three  men  who  afterwards  obtained  considerable  prom- 
inence in  the  affairs  of  Central  Asia,  and  one  of  whom 
gained  a  world-wide  reputation  as  a  soldier,  were  attached 
to  this  expedition.  The  last  was  Skobeleff,  the  hero  of 
Plevna  and  the  Russo-Turkish  campaign  of  1877-78.  The 
others  were  Stolietoff  and  Grodekoff  ;  Stolietoff  was  a  gen- 
eral, while  the  other  two  were  captains,  and  down  to  that 
time  had  had  no  opportunity  for  distinguishing  themselves. 
Skobeleff  was  perhaps  the  man  of  least  promise;  as  he 
was  looked  upon  as  a  wild  sort  of  fellow,  with  a  great 
fondness  for  conviviality,  which  was  constantly  getting  him 
into  trouble,  and  he  was  so  reckless  that  his  elders  pre- 
dicted he  would  be  killed  in  the  first  battle,  or  the  first 
skirmish  of  any  magnitude. 

It  was  the  Russian  plan  to  make  haste  slowly  in  con- 
quering the  Turcoman  country.  Reconnoitring  expedi- 
tions were  sent  out  from  the  fort  at  Krasnovodsk,  but  no 
other  point  was  immediately  occupied. 

The  Yomut  Turcomans  in  the  Caspian  region  made  no 
resistance ;  they  are  far  less  warlike  than  the  Tekke 
Turcomans  farther  to  the  east,  who  afterwards  became  the 
defenders  of  Geok  Tepe.  A  short  time  before  his  death, 
Skobeleff  said  to  a  friend  :  "  We  made  a  great  mistake 
when  we  landed  at  Krasnovodsk  ;  instead  of  going  ahead 
we  dawdled  about  reconnoitring  the  country.  The 
result  was  we  gradually  taught  the  Turcomans  how  to 
fight,  and  at  last  they  fought  so  well  that  it  needed  a  series 
of  great  campaigns  to  crush  them." 

From  1869  to  1873  there  were  numerous  skirmishes  and 
reconnoitrings,  during  which  the  steppes  were  pretty 
well  explored  as  far  as  Kizil-Arvat.  General  Stolietoff 
was  in  command  until  1872,  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
Colonel  Markusoff,  who  pushed  his  explorations  to  the 
wells  of  Igdy,  then  bending  to  the  southwest,  he  passed 
Kizil-Arvat  on  his  return  to  Krasnovodsk.  There  appeared 
to  be  no  obstacle  to  a  Russian  advance  into  the  heart  of 


422  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

the  country.  But  when  General  Lomakin  was  ordered 
there  during  the  years  between  1873  and  '79,  he  found 
that  beyond  Kizil-Arvat  were  the  Tekke  Turcomans,  who 
seemed  determined  to  make  a  decided  opposition  to  the 
Muscovite  designs.  A  regular  campaign  was  required,  and 
General  Lazareff  was  ordered  to  push  back  the  Turco- 
mans and  occupy  as  a  base  of  operations  the  first  culti- 
vated oasis  east  of  Kizil-Arvat.  Lazareff,  early  in  the 
campaign  died,  and  the  command  fell  upon  General 
Lomakin,  who  undertook  to  execute  the  order.  This 
general,  who  had  so  easily  conquered,  if  conquering  it 
may  be  called  where  no  opposition  is  offered,  the  Yomut 
Turcomans  along  the  borders  of  the  Caspian,  mistakenly 
thought  he  might  deal  in  the  same  way  with  the  Tekkes. 
He  advanced  with  4,000  men  and  reached  Geok  Tepe 
without  resistance,  but  no  sooner  was  he  in  front  of  it 
than  the  Turcomans  fell  upon  him.  He  was  severely 
defeated  and  made  a  hasty  retreat  to  Krasnovodsk  with 
the  remnant  of  his  army. 

General  Tergukasoff  was  next  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand, but  when  he  saw  the  difficulties  confronting  him 
he  resigned.  He  was  succeeded  by  General  Petrussovitch 
under  the  chief  command  of  Skobeleff.  Thus  from 
Stolietoff  to  Skobeleff  there  were  no  fewer  than  seven 
generals  who  had  tried  to  conquer  the  Tekke  Turcomans. 

Skobeleff,  seeing  the  vast  difficulties  of  the  situation, 
matured  a  skilful  and  scientific  plan  of  operations, 
for  which  he  obtained  the  imperial  sanction  by  making 
a  personal  visit  to  Livadia,  where  the  Emperor 
was  then  sojourning.  His  next  step  was  to  telegraph 
to  General  Kuropatkin,  who  was  then  on  the  Kuldja 
frontier,  to  join  him  with  a  detachment  of  troops 
from  Turkestan.  Kuropatkin  marched  from  Tashkend 
to  Khiva  and  thence  to  Bami,  where  he  was  to  join 
Skobeleff;  in  spite  of  the  difficulties  of  the  route  across 
the  desert,  he  brought  his  troops  through  in  fine  condition 


CAPTURE    OF  GROK  TEPE.  423 

and  secured  the  profound  admiration  of  all  military  men 
for  his  remarkable  achievement.  He  was  twenty-six 
days  covering  the  distance  between  Khiva  and  Bami ; 
the  route  was  but  little  known  and  for  much  the  greater 
part  of  the  way  it  lies  through  a  sandy  desert  where  water 
can  onl\'  be  found  at  long  intervals. 

When  Skobeleff  took  command  in  the  middle  of  March, 
1880,  the  position  of  the  Russians  was  this: — Their  base 
was  Tchikishlar  and  Krasnovodsk,  their  direct  aim  Geok 
Tepe,  where  I.omakin  had  been  so  disastrously  defeated 
the  previous  year.  Their  outposts  were  in  '79  at  Douz- 
Aloum,  in  the  valley  of  the  Sumbora,  a  tributary  of  the 
Atrek.  Skobeleff's  first  work  was  to  secure  a  safe  trans- 
port, establish  a  regular  line  of  steamers  across  the 
Caspian,  to  build  suitable  docks,  secure  20,CXD0  camels, 
and  build  a  railway  from  Michaelovsk  to  Kizil-Arvat. 
Michaelovsk  is  a  small  bay  near  Krasnovodsk  and  better 
suited  as  a  harbor  than  the  latter  place.  Skobeleff's  first 
reconnoitring  convinced  him  that  Geok  Tepe  could  only 
be  taken  by  a  regular  siege.  He  started  from  Douz- 
Aloum,  personally  leading  the  advance,  took  Khodshom- 
Kala  on  June  loth,  and  then  marched  on  Bami,  which 
afforded  him  an  admirable  base,  120  versts  from  Geok 
Tepe.  On  the  13th  July,  he  started  with  1,600  men  to 
reconnoitre  Geok  Tepe,  which  he  reached  in  five  days, 
amidst  constant  and  severe  attacks  by  the  Tekkes,  He 
reached  Bami  again  July  22d,  having  marched  250  versts  in 
ten  days,  constantly  harassed  by  the  enemy.  This  con- 
cluded the  first  stage  of  his  operations. 

From  July  to  December  the  Russians  abstained  from 
offensive  operations.  The  Douz-Aloum-Bami  line  was  re- 
peatedly attacked,  and  several  night  assaults  were  made  on 
Bendessen  and  Khodshom-Kala,  but  each  attack  of  the  Tur- 
comans was  repulsed.  Meantime,  General  Kuropatkin  left 
Amou  Darya  and  marched  by  Igdy,  and  Kizil-Arvat  to  Bami, 
a  distance  of  400  versts,  which  he  made  in  eighteen  days. 


424  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

Supplies,  munitions,  and  siege  artillery  were  accumulated 
at  Bami ;  they  were  nearly  all  brought  by  the  Tshikishlar 
route,  as  Skobeleff  could  not  wait  for  the  completion  of 
the  railway  to  Kizil-Arvat.  By  the  beginning  of  Decem- 
ber the  Russians  were  ready  to  take  the  offensive,  and  the 
advance  upon  Geok  Tepe  was  ordered. 

Geok  Tepe,  sometimes  called  Goek  Tepe  ("  The  Green 
Hills"),  is  situated  on  the  Akhal  oasis,  in  the  Turcoman 
steppes,  387  versts  (250  miles),  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
The  chain  of  hills  called  the  Kopet-Dag,  lies  south  and 
southwest  of  Geok  Tepe,  and  on  the  other  side  it  touches 
the  sandy  desert  of  Kara  Kum,  with  the  hill  of  Geok  on 
the  east.  The  Turcomans,  or  rather  the  Tekke  Turco- 
mans, who  held  it,  are  the  most  numerous  of  the  nomad 
tribes  in  that  region.  They  are  reported  to  count  about 
100,000  kibitkas,  or  tents;  reckoning  5  persons  to  a  kibit 
ka,  this  would  give  them  a  strength  of  half  a  million. 
Their  great  strength  in  numbers  and  their  fighting  abili- 
ties enabled  them  to  choose  their  position  and  settle  on 
the  most  fertile  oases  along  the  northern  border  of  Persia 
for  centuries.  These  oases  have  been  renowned  for  their 
productiveness,  and  in  consequence  of  the  abundance  of 
food,  the  Tekkes  were  a  powerful  race  of  men,  and  were 
feared  throughout  all  that  part  of  Asia.  Their  principal 
stronghold  was  Geok  Te'pe,  which  lies  in  a  depressed  hol- 
low near  the  hill  of  Geok,  as  already  described.  It  is 
traversed  by  many  irrigating  canals,  which,  towards  the 
north,  convert  the  ground  into  a  marsh,  and  make  it  almost 
inaccessible  for  troops. 

The  fortress  of  Geok  Tepe  at  the  time  of  the  Russian 
advance  consisted  of  walls  of  mud  12  <  r  15  feet  high 
towards  the  north  and  west,  and  6  or  8  feet  thick.  In 
front  of  these  walls  was  a  ditch,  6  feet  deep,  supplied  by 
a  running  stream,  and  behind  the  walls  was  a  raised  plat- 
form for  the  defenders.  The  space  between  the  first  and 
second  interior  wall  was  from  50  to  60  feet  wide,  and  oc- 


CAPTURE    OF   GEOK  TEPE.  425 

cupied  by  the  kibitkas  of  the  Tekke  Turcomans  and  their 
families.  The  second  wall  was  exactly  like  the  outer  one, 
with  a  ditch  and  enclosing  space  inside,  and  bridged  on 
one  corner  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  stream.  The 
kibitkas  were  sunk  into  the  ground,  and  in  order  to  pro- 
tect them  against  shot,  they  were  covered  with  earth  to  a 
depth  of  several  inches.  On  the  south  and  east  the  walls 
were  less  high  and  much  thinner,  without  ditches  and 
without  the  second  interior  wall.  Outworks  (kalas)  had 
been  thrown  up  in  front,  and  one  of  them  was  connected 
with  the  main  fortification.  The  walls  of  these  outworks 
were  much  higher  and  stronger  than  those  of  the  fortress 
itself. 

In  1878  Tekme  Sirdar,  a  Turcoman  chief,  submitted  to 
the  Russians  and  was  received  into  their  camp  at  Kras- 
novodsk.  He  remained  there  several  months,  and  then, 
for  some  real  or  fancied  injury,  fled  from  the  camp,  and 
collected  his  followers  with  the  determination  to  make 
war  on  the  invaders.  He  made  good  use  of  his  eyes  while 
at  Krasnovodsk,  and  when  the  Tekkes  determined  to  make 
a  stand  at  Geok  Tepe,  he  superintended  the  construction 
of  the  fortress,  which  he  made  to  resemble  the  Russian 
one  at  Krasnovodsk  as  much  as  possible. 

Reconnoitring  in  force  on  the  1st  January,  1881,  Sko- 
beleff  decided  that  the  most  favorable  plan  for  attack  was 
on  the  Yanghi-Kala,  to  the  southeast  of  Geok  Tepe. 
Ordering  up  the  two  assaulting  columns  under  Colonel 
Koselkoff  and  General  Kuropatkin,  General  Skobeleff 
advanced  in  person  with  the  main  body  to  repulse 
the  Turcoman  sallies.  During  the  rcconnoissancc  of  the 
fortress  Skobeleff  ordered  his  men  to  throw  some  shells 
among  the  enemy's  cavalry.  The  first  of  these  shells 
upset  its  carriage  and  fell  in  the  midst  of  the  Russian 
detachment.  There  was  a  momentary  panic,  and  the 
detachment  seemed  on  the  point  of  being  thrown  into 
confusion,  when  Skobeleff  forced  his  horse  to  where  the 


426  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

shell  lay  on  the  ground.  It  burst ;  the  animal  was  terri- 
bly wounded,  but  its  rider  escaped  unhurt.  On  seeing  his 
figure  reappear  through  the  smoke  after  the  explosion, 
the  soldiers  recovered  their  confidence  and  resumed  their 
advance  upon  the  Turcoman  position. 

Next  day  there  was  a  reconnoissance  with  cavalry  which 
completely  encircled  the  fortress,  and  was  bravely  met 
by  the  Turcomans.  Nothing  now  remained  but  to  cut 
the  trenches.  The  first  parallel  within  800  yards  of 
the  walls  was  successfully  cut  by  January  4th.  From  that 
date  it  was  a  regular  siege,  interrupted  occasionally  by 
sallies  of  the  Tekkes  within  the  fort  or  attacks  by  those 
outside.  In  one  of  these  fights  General  Petrussovitch  was 
killed.  The  besieging  army  was  about  io,CXX)  strong,  while 
the  besieged  were  from  30,000  to  40,000. 

The  parallel  was  armed  with  cannon  on  January  iith. 
General  Skobeleff  in  his  report  stated  that  on  January 
i6th  "  the  positions  of  the  enemy  forty  yards  in  front  of 
us  were  successfully  taken  by  assault,  and  the  enemy,  who 
had  attacked  our  centre  and  left  flank,  beaten  back  after 
a  most  stubborn  fight  all  along  the  line.  The  losses  on 
their  side  were  very  great.  The  work  in  trenches  is  diffi- 
cult, because  we  are  ten  times  weaker  than  the  enemy. 
Head  of  sap  is  now  thirty  yards  from  walls  of  the  strong- 
hold." 

Throughout  the  siege  the  Turcomans  made  frequent 
sallies  and  there  was  almost  continuous  fighting.  Some- 
times the  Turcomans  drove  the  Russians  from  the 
outposts,  and  if  they  had  been  as  well  armed  as  their 
besiegers  it  is  highly  probable  that  Skobeleff  would  have 
fared  no  better  than  did  Lomakin  in  his  disastrous  cam- 
paign. The  Turcoman  weapons  were  no  match  for  the 
breech-loading  rifles  of  the  Russians,  and  in  every  strug- 
gle the  latter  were  victorious,  their  loss  being  small  in 
comparison  with  that  of  the  Tekkes.  The  Russians  had 
sixty-nine  pieces  of  artillery,  while  the  Turcomans  had  no 


CAPTURE    OF   GEO  A'  TEPE.  427 

cannon  to  oppose  them  with.  Skobeleff  found  that  his 
cannon  made  little  impression  upon  the  clay  walls  of  the 
fort,  so  he  ordered  his  artillery  to  fire  over  the  walls  and 
into  the  enclosed  space,  in  order  to  demoralize  the  people 
within  as  much  as  possible.  In  fighting  against  Asiatics 
artillery  always  has  a  prominent  part.  Its  moral  effect  in 
frightening  them  is  certainly  ten  times  as  great  as  its 
destructive  power. 

Kuropatkin  had  charge  of  the  advanced  work  and  dis- 
played extraordinary  coolness  and  courage.  Skobeleff 
was  everywhere  among  the  soldiers,  encouraging  them  by 
word  and  deed  and  carefully  watching  the  progress  of  the 
sapping  and  mining  operations.  When  an  ofificer  accom- 
plished a  specified  portion  of  the  tunnelling  in  less  than 
the  time  fixed  for  it,  he  was  complimented  in  the  presence 
of  the  soldiers,  kissed  and  caressed,  and  perhaps  treated 
to  a  bottle  of  champagne,  while  the  soldiers  were  praised 
as  "  molodyetz ! "  good  fellows.  If  the  ofificer  failed  to 
make  the  required  progress  within  the  time,  he  was  ^ure 
to  be  roundly  abused  and  threatened  with  disrating. 

The  storming  columns  were  ordered  to  be  ready  for 
work  on  January  24th.     They  were  as  follows: 

1st — Under  Kuropatkin,  consisting  of  5  companies  and 
I  battalion  of  infantry,  ^  company  of  sappers.  I  detach- 
ment of  volunteers,  i  sotnia  of  foot  Cossacks. 

2d — Under  Kosclkoff,  of  2  battalions  of  infantry,  i 
platoon  sappers,  i  marine  volunteers,  i  artillery. 

3d — Under  Gaidaroff,  of  i  battalion  infantry,  i  platoon 
sappers,  I  detachment  marine  volunteers,  i  section  of 
mountain  artillery. 

4th — In  reserve,  there  were  21  companies,  among  whom 
were  3  companies  of  foot  dragoons  and  24  guns. 

At  7  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  24th,  Gaidaroff  ad- 
vanced to  attack  the  first  fortification  on  the  south  front, 
supported  by  36  guns.  The  wall  had  already  been  half 
crumbled  down  by  an  explosion  of  powder  and  completely 


428  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

broken  by  the  firing  of  a  dynamite  mine.  At  11.20  the 
assault  took  place,  and  during  the  action  the  mine  on  the 
east  front  was  exploded.  It  was  laid  with  125  cwt.  of 
gunpowder,  and  in  its  explosion  completely  buried  hun- 
dreds of  Tekkes.  The  firing  of  this  mine  was  the  signal 
for  the  columns  of  Kuropatkin  and  Koselkoff  to  advance. 
The  interval  between  the  two  explosions  was  ten  minutes. 
A  furious  hand-to-hand  fight  followed,  which  lasted  one 
hour,  and  only  with  great  difificulty  could  the  Tekkes  be 
pushed  down  the  walls.  Samur's  battalion  scaled  the 
walls  between  the  breaches.  All  defenders  on  the  walls 
were  cut  down. 

About  1.30  P.M.  Gaidaroff  carried  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  walls,  and  a  battle  raged  in  the  interior.  Half  an 
hour  later  the  Russians  were  in  possession  of  Denghil- 
Tepe,  the  hill  redoubt  commanding  the  fortress  of  Geok 
Tepe.  The  Tekkes  then  seemed  to  be  panic-stricken,  and 
took  to  flight,  leaving  their  families  and  all  their  goods 
behind.  One  division  of  dragoons,  4  sotnias  of  Cossacks, 
6  companies  of  infantry,  and  4  long-range  field  guns  went 
in  pursuit,  and  the  fleeing  Tekkes  were  followed  for  about 
15  versts.  The  ditches  to  Geok  Tepe  were  filled  with 
corpses,  and  there  were  4,000  dead  in  the  interior  of  the 
fortress.  The  loss  of  the  enemy  was  enormous.  In  the 
pursuit  the  Russians  are  said  to  have  cut  down  no  less  than 
8,000  fugitives.  The  total  loss  of  the  Tekkes  during  the 
siege,  capture,  and  pursuit  was  estimated  at  40,000. 

During  the  siege  the  artillery  fired  from  100  to  500  shots 
daily,  and  the  infantry  used  from  10,000  to  70,000  rounds 
of  ammunition  in  the  same  time.  During  the  assault  and 
pursuit  the  infantry  fired  273,804  rounds,  the  cavalry  12,510, 
and  the  artillery  5,864 ;  224  military  rockets  were  also  used.* 

The  Turcoman  leaders,  Tekme  Sardar  and  Makdum 
Kali,  escaped  and  fled  to  Merv.  Skobeleff  pushed  on  in 
pursuit  as  far  as  Askabad,  the  capital  of  the  Akhal  Tekkes^ 

*  Marvin's  "  The  Russians  at  the  Gates  of  Herat." 


CAPTURE    OF  GEOK  TEPE.  429 

27  miles  east  of  Geok  Tepe,  and  from  Askabad  he  sent 
Kuropatkin  with  a  reconnoitring  column  half-way  across 
the  desert  to  Merv.  Skobeleff  wanted  to  capture  Merv, 
but  with  his  columns  considerably  shattered  with  the  siege 
and  capture  of  Geok  Tepe  and  the  near  exhaustion  of  his 
supply  of  ammunition,  he  did  not  feel  strong  enough  to 
make  the  attempt.  Kuropatkin  was  recalled  to  Askabad, 
which  remained  the  frontier  post  of  the  Russians  forseveral 
months,  until  circumstances  favored  the  advance  upon 
Sarakhs  and  the  Tejend,  and  the  subsequent  swoop  upon 
Merv,  with  its  bloodless  capture. 

The  siege  and  capture  of  Geok  Tepe  was  the  most  im- 
portant victory  every  achieved  by  the  Russians  in  Central 
Asia.  It  opened  the  way  for  the  Russian  advance  to  the 
frontier  of  India,  and  carried  the  boundaries  of  the  empire 
southward  to  those  of  Persia.  In  the  interest  of  humanity, 
it  was  of  the  greatest  importance,  as  it  broke  up  the  system 
of  man-stealing  and  its  attendant  cruelties,  which  the  Turco- 
mans had  practised  for  centuries.  The  people  of  Northern 
Persia  no  longer  live  in  constant  terror  of  Turcoman  raids; 
the  slave  markets  of  Central  Asia  are  closed,  and  doubtless 
forever.  The  Turcoman  barrier  against  western  progress 
was  broken  completely  when  the  Russian  flag  floated  in 
triumph  over  the  Green  Hills  of  the  Tekkes. 

It  is  an  interesting  circumstance  that  the  Turcomans, 
now  that  they  are  forbidden  to  indulge  in  raiding,  have 
turned  their  attention  to  steady  industry,  and  promise  to 
make  good  citizens.  Whatever  may  be  their  faults,  they 
are  not  a  lazy  people  ;  they  gave  up  their  raiding  habits 
very  unwillingly  ;  but  when  once  convinced  that  they  must 
Hveby  industry,  they  seem  to  have  accepted  the  situation. 
Many  of  them  have  entered  the  Russian  service,  and 
already  several  battalions  of  Turcoman  cavalry  have  been 
organized,  armed,  and  drilled  after  the  European  system. 
Their  subordinate  officers  are  of  their  own  race  ;  for  the 
present   the  commanders  are   Russians,  but  in  course  of 


430  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

time  it  is  quite  likely  that  all  the  officers  will  be  Turcoman. 
In  the  British  army  only  British  officers  can  aspire  to  the 
highest  positions,  but  the  Russians  have  no  such  prejudices. 
Some  of  the  most  prominent  officers  in  the  Russian  ser- 
vice are  Asiatics;  of  these  may  be  mentioned  Generals 
Tergukasoff  and  LazarefT,  who  commanded  divisions  in 
the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877-78,  and  General  Loris 
MelikofT,  whose  position  was  for  several  years  only  second 
to  that  of  the  Czar. 

In  his  campaign  against  the  Turcomans,  SkobelelT  prof- 
ited by  the  experience  of  his  predecessors,  and  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  country  and  people  that  had  been  gained  by 
them  since  the  landing  at  Krasnovodsk  in  1869.  He  made 
his  plans  with  great  care,  and  completed  all  his  preparations 
before  striking  a  blow  other  than  was  necessary  to  keep 
open  his  lines  of  communication  and  protect  his  advanced 
position  at  Bami.  The  Turcoman  does  his  best  work  in 
summer,  while  the  reverse  is  the  case  with  the  Russian. 
The  Russian  army  was  well  fed,  and  its  camp  was  in  as 
comfortable  a  condition  as  circumstances  would  permit. 
The  Turcomans  were  huddled  with  their  families  inside 
the  fortress  of  Geok  Tepe,  and  poorly  supplied  with  pro- 
visions ;  they  had  no  previous  experience  in  warfare  of 
this  kind,  and  were  unacquainted  with  commissariat  re- 
quirements. Skobeleff  understood  the  necessities  of  the 
campaign,  and  the  character  and  habits  of  his  enemy,  better 
than  did  his  predecessors,  and  hence  his  victory. 

The  Trans-Caspian  railway,  which  owed  its  commence- 
ment to  Skobeleff's  campaign  against  the  Turcomans,  has 
been  pushed  far  into  Central  Asia.  It  has  reached  Merv, 
and  perhaps  before  these  pages  are  presented  to  the  public 
gaze,  the  whistle  of  the  Russian  locomotive  will  have  re- 
sounded in  Samarcand  or  Tashkend.  A  branch  from  Sar- 
akhs  or  Merv  to  Herat  and  the  frontier  of  India  is  in  the 
near  future,  and  it  is  easily  possible  that  the  Russian  and 
Indian  railway  systems  will  be  connected  before  the  new 
year  of  1890. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


BATTLE    OF   MIRAFLORES — ll 


When  the  South  American  republics  gained  their  in- 
dependence in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  there 
was  a  general  agreement  that  their  boundaries  should  be 
established  according  to  those  of  the  Spanish  provinces  of 
1810.  In  accordance  with  this  agreement,  the  Bolivian 
province  of  Atacama  on  the  Pacific  coast  extended  to  the 
southern  limit  of  Peru  on  one  side,  and  the  northern  limit 
of  Chili  on  the  other.  The  northern  limit  of  Chili  was  at 
latitude  25°  south,  and  the  province  of  Atacama  in  Bolivia 
was  then  a  desert  tract  of  no  particular  value.  In  course 
of  time  it  was  found  that  the  desert  contained  inexhaust- 
ible stores  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  borax,  that  there  were 
deposits  of  guano  along  the  coast,  and  the  mountain 
portions  of  the  province  possessed  some  of  the  richest 
silver  mines  in  the  world.  In  consequence  of  these  dis- 
coveries, troubles  arose  between  Bolivia  and  Chili ;  they 
afterwards  extended  to  Peru,  and  out  of  them  grew  the 
war  of   1879-81. 

Chili  laid  claim  to  all  territory  south  of  the  23d  parallel. 
After  considerable  discussion  and  negotiation,  the  Presi- 
dent of  Bolivia  in  1866  signed  a  treaty,  conceding  Chili's 
right  as  far  north  as  the  24th  parallel,  but  the  treaty  was 
never  ratified  by  the  Bolivian  Congress.  In  return  for  this 
supposed  concession,  it  was  stipulated  that  Chili  should 
receive  half  the  customs  duties  collected  between  the  23d 
and  24th  parallels,  while  Bolivia  should  have  half  of   the 

431 


432  DECISIl^E   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

duties  collected  between  the  24th  and  25th  parallels. 
This  was  an  admirable  arrangement  for  Chili,  as  the  richest 
deposits  of  nitrates  are  north  of  the  24th  parallel,  and  she 
would  be  entitled  to  a  considerable  revenue  every  year 
without  the  trouble  and  expense  of  collecting  it. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  customs  dues  were  not  properly 
paid,  and  Chili  found  in  this  circumstance  a  new  cause  of 
grievance.  In  1870  rich  silver  mines  were  discovered  at 
Caracoles,  north  of  the  24th  parallel,  and  the  Bolivian 
government  granted  a  concession  to  a  company  to  work 
these  mines  and  also  the  nitrate  deposits.  The  company 
was  under  English  management,  backed  by  English  and 
Chilian  capital ;  it  paid  $io,000  to  the  government  for  the 
concession,  and  built  a  railway  from  the  port  of  Antofa- 
gasta.  The  company  began  operations,  and  soon  fell  into 
disputes  with  the  Bolivian  government,  relative  to  the  ex- 
port duties  on  the  nitrates,  which  it  was  sending  to  foreign 
countries. 

In  1873  a  treaty  of  alliance  between  Peru  and  Bolivia 
was  signed  and  approved  by  the  National  Assemblies  of 
the  two  countries.  It  provided  for  a  mutual  guaranty  of 
the  independence  of  the  two  countries,  and  defence  against 
aggression  from  others.  It  was  agreed  in  the  treaty  that 
all  conciliatory  measures  were  to  be  tried  to  prevent  war, 
and  that  arbitration  through  a  third  party  was  to  be  sought 
whenever  possible.  In  1S78  the  Bolivian  government 
called  upon  the  Antofagasta  company  to  pay  the  duties 
which  had  accumulated  on  its  exports ;  the  company  re- 
fused payment,  whereupon  the  government  ordered  the 
seizure  and  sale  by  auction  of  enough  of  the  company's 
property  to  pay  the  claims.  Immediately  the  Chilian 
government  proceeded  to  hostilities,  but  did  not  declare 
war,  by  seizing  the  Bolivian  ports  of  Antofagasta,  Cobija, 
and  Tocapilla.  Peru  offered  her  services  as  mediator,  but, 
as  too  often  happens  to  the  arbiter  in  cases  of  mediation, 
it  was  speedily  involved  in  trouble  with  Chili.     This  trouble 


434  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

was,  in  part,  attributable  to  unwise  legislation  by  Peru, 
relative  to  the  nitrate  deposits  in  her  southern  province 
of  Tarapaca,  which  borders  upon  Atacama. 

In  consequence  of  her  financial  difificulties,  Peru  in  1873 
made  the  nitrate  deposits  of  Tarapaca  a  government  mon- 
opoly, the  state  paying  a  fixed  price  to  producers,  and 
being  herself  the  sole  exporter.  The  nitrate  deposits  were 
being  exploited  by  Chilian  and  English  capital,  and  the 
labor  employed  in  the  work  was  mostly  Chilian.  Under 
these  circumstances,  Chili  protested  on  behalf  of  her  sub- 
jects, whose  interests  were  seriously  interfered  with,  and 
finding  the  law  a  failure,  Peru  abandoned  it,  substituting 
another  authorizing  the  government  to  buy  up  all  the 
nitrate  works.  There  was  a  great  deal  of  diplomatic  cor- 
respondence, and  it  is  impossible  to  harmonize  all  the 
.statements  contained  in  the  voluminous  papers.  The  end 
of  the  affair  was  that  Chili  declared  war  upon  Peru  on  the 
5th  April,  1879. 

Chili  was  in  far  better  condition  for  war  than  either  of 
her  adversaries.  Owing  to  the  character  of  the  Pacific 
coast  of  South  America,  the  strip  of  land  between  the 
Andes  and  the  ocean  consisting  of  waterless  desert  with 
occasional  valleys,  every  thing  depends  upon  the  possession 
of  the  sea.  Chili  had  been  increasing  her  navy,  while  that 
of  Peru  had  not  been  augmented.  The  Chilians  had  2 
powerful  iron-clads  of  the  newest  pattern,  the  Almirante 
Cochrane  and  Blanco  Encalada,  which  were  alone  capable 
of  destroying  the  entire  Peruvian  fleet.  In  addition  to 
these  she  had  4  corvettes,  each  carrying  from'  i  to  3 
150-pounder,  7-ton  Armstrong  guns,  2  wooden  gun-boats 
heavily  armed,  and  10  transports.  The  Peruvians  had  I 
turret-ship,  the  Huascar,  but  her  armor  could  easily  be 
pierced  by  the  shot  of  the  Chilian  iron-clads,  and  her  arma- 
ment consisted  of  2  lo-inch  Dahlgren  guns  and  2  40 
pounder  Whitworths.  She  had  also  a  broadside  iron-clad 
of  the  old  type,  the  Indcpcndcncia,  and  2  wooden  corvettes. 


BATTLE    OF  MIRAFLORES  435 

Two  monitors  purchased  from  the  United  States  at  the  end 
of  the  civil  war  cannot  be  classed  among  the  sea-going  ships 
of  Peru,  as  they  were  permanently  stationed,  one  at  Callao 
and  the  other  at  Arica. 

In  land  forces,  the  armies  of  the  two  countries  were  pro- 
portionately the  same  as  their  navies,  Chili  being  superior 
in  numbers,  drill,  discipline,  effectiveness,  and  equipment. 
Chili  had  provided  herself  with  Krupp  breech-loading 
field-guns,  while  Peru  had  nothing  else  than  the  old-fash- 
ioned muzzle-loading  smooth-bore  cannon,  of  a  range  far 
inferior  to  that  of  the  Chilian  Krupps.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  Bolivia  was  very  poorly  provided  for  active 
operations.  Her  army,  small  in  numbers,  had  only  1,500 
Remington  rifles,  the  rest  of  her  small-arms  being  old- 
fashioned  flint-lock  muskets. 

In  February,  1879,  the  Chilians  seized  the  Bolivian  port 
of  Antofagasta,  and  from  there  sent  a  force  to  the  silver 
mines  of  Caracoles.  On  receiving  news  of  the  invasion, 
the  President  of  Bolivia  declared  war  against  Chili,  and 
prepared  to  defend  his  territories  as  best  he  could.  The 
first  encounter  of  the  war  was  on  the  23d  March  at  Calama, 
a  small  village  about  eighty  miles  from  the  coast,  and 
nearly  due  north  of  Caracoles.  The  Chilians  attacked  it 
with  600  men,  the  defence  being  in  the  hands  of  about 
one  fourth  that  number.  The  defenders  fought  for  about 
three  hours,  killing  several  Chilians,  but  were  compelled 
to  retire,  owing  to  the  superiority  of  the  assailants  in  num- 
bers and  equipment. 

Immediately  after  the  declaration  of  war  between  Peru 
and  Chili,  on  the  5th  A])ril,  the  Chilian  fleet  appeared  off 
the  Peruvian  forts,  occupying  those  that  were  undefended 
and  blockading  others.  Wherever  there  was  any  show  of 
resistance,  the  towns  were  bombarded,  and  some  of  them 
were  laid  in  ruins.  For  some  weeks  the  war  was  conducted 
principally  by  the  navy;  one  of  the  Chilian  corvettes  was 
destroyed  by  the  Peruvian  iron-clad  Hiiascar,  and  shortly 


43^  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

afterwards  the  Independencia  was  decoyed  on  the  rocks  by 
a  Chilian  gun-boat,  and  lost.  From  this  time  the  Peruvian 
fleet  acted  chiefly  on  the  defensive,  as  the  preponderance 
of  the  Chilian  navy  was  overwhelming.  On  the  8th  Octo- 
ber the  Huascar  was  captured  by  the  Chilian  fleet  off 
Mejillones,  after  a  gallant  fight  of  6  hours.  As  this  was 
the  first  battle  ever  fought  on  the  open  ocean  between 
iron-clads  of  the  modern  type,  it  may  be  worth  our  while 
to  digress  briefly  in  order  to  study  the  peculiarities  of  the 
combat. 

Miguel  Grau,  the  commander  of  the  Huascar,  was  a 
Colombian  by  birth,  and  his  father  was  a  captain  under 
Bolivar  at  the  battle  of  Ayacucho.  At  the  time  the  war 
broke  out  he  had  been  29  years  in  the  Peruvian  navy, 
and  reached  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  After  the  loss 
of  the  Independencia,  the  Huascar  and  the  corvette  Union 
cruised  in  company  for  the  purpose  of  capturing  Ciiilian 
transports,  or  any  other  vessels  that  came  in  their  wa}-  and 
were  not  too  strong  to  cope  with.  On  the  ist  October  a 
Chilian  fleet  of  2  iron-clads  and  several  other  vessels,  all 
carefully  cleaned  and  refitted,  left  Valparaiso  for  the  pur- 
pose of  capturing  the  Huascar.  Arriving  off  Arica,  the 
Chilian  admiral  learned  that  the  Huascar  and  Union  were 
cruising  to  the  southward ;  the  Huascar  had  not  been 
cleaned  for  some  time,  and  her  speed  was  inferior  to  that 
of  the  Chilian  iron-clads,  who  would  thus  be  able  to  choose 
their  distance  in  case  they  could  catch  her  in  the  open  sea. 

On  the  morning  of  the  8th,  when  a  fog  lifted,  Admiral 
Grau  found  himself  caught  between  the  two  divisions  of 
the  Chilian  fleet,  one  consisting  of  the  iron-clad  Blanco  Tiwd 
the  gun-boat  Covadonga,  with  a  transport,  and  the  other  of 
the  iron-clad  Cochrane,  the  corvette  O'Higgins,  and  the 
gun-boat  Loa.  Either  of  the  Chilian  iron-clads  was  superior 
to  the  Huascar,  and  now  that  he  was  between  both,  and 
they  had  the  gun-boats  and  corvette  to  aid  them,  the 
Peruvian  admiral's  chance  of  escape  was  hopeless.  Finding 


BATTLE    OF  MIRAFLORES.  437 

that  he  could  not  get  away,  owing  to  his  inferior  speed,  he 
determined  to  fight,  first  ordering  the  6^;n'(?;/ to  leave  as  fast 
as  possible,  since  she  would  be  the  only  naval  hope  of  Peru 
in  case  of  the  Huascars  loss.  As  she  was  of  superior 
speed,  she  had  no  difficulty  in  getting  away,  though  her 
commander  greatly  regretted  parting  company  with  the 
Huascar  in  the  time  of  the  latter's  danger. 

At  25  minutes  past  nine  o'clock  the  Htiascar  fired  the 
first  shot  at  a  distance  of  about  3,000  yards  ;  it  was  aimed 
at  the  Cochrane  and  fell  short.  A  second  and  a  third  shots 
were  fired  with  the  same  result ;  the  Huascar  s  fourth  shot 
penetrated  the  armor  plating  of  the  Cochrane,  and  passed 
through  the  galle}',  and  then  the  Cochrafie  began  to  return 
her  adversary's  fire.  Her  fourth  shot  struck  the  Huascar  s 
turret  and  temporarily  disabled  it,  but  it  was  soon  in  order 
again.  The  Huascar  s  turret  was  worked  by  hand,  while 
that  of  the  Cochrane  was  operated  by  steam.  The  fifth  shot 
from  the  Huascar  struck  the  armor  of  the  Cochrane  but 
did  not  penetrate  it,  and  then,  as  the  ships  had  closed  con- 
siderably, Admiral  Grau  tried  to  ram  his  adversary. 

The  manoeuvre  was  defeated  by  the  Cochrane,  which 
turned  very  quickly  by  using  her  twin  screws  ;  she  could 
turn  in  half  the  space  required  by  the  Huascar,  and  her 
commander,  Captain  Latorre,  showed  great  judgment 
and  coolness  in  handling  her.  The  ships  were  now  fight- 
ing at  distances  var\-ing  from  300  to  50  yards,  and  a  steady 
fire  from  rifles  and  machine  guns  was  maintained  on  both 
sides.  Exactly  half  an  hour  after  the  first  shot  w^as  fired 
a  shell  from  the  CocJiranc  exploded  in  the  Huascar  s  pilot 
tower,  in  which  were  Admiral  Grau  and  one  of  his  lieu- 
tenants. Both  were  killed,  and  so  terrific  was  the  explosion 
that  the  bodies  were  literally  blown  into  fragments,  the 
largest  piece  of  the  gallant  admiral  that  was  afterwards 
found  and  recognizable  being  a  portion  of  one  leg. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  bursting  of  the  shell  in  the  pilot 
tower  the  Huascar  had  been  skilfully  handled  :  the  firing 


438  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

on  both  sides  had  not  been  particularly  noteworthy  as  only 
a  small  percentage  of  the  shots  had  taken  effect.  A  few 
minutes  after  ten  o'clock  the  Blanco  came  within  range  and 
fired  her  first  shot  at  the  Hiiascar  from  a  distance  of  600 
yards.  On  board  the  latter  ship  her  senior  surviving  offi- 
cer, Don  Elias  Aguirre,  had  assumed  command  on  the 
death  of  Admiral  Grau  ;  a  few  minutes  later  his  head  was 
taken  off  by  a  shell  from  the  Blajico,  and  the  next  officer 
in  rank,  Captain  Carbajal,  was  severely  wounded  by  the 
same  shell.  Lieutenant  Rodriguez  next  took  the  com- 
mand, but  he  too  was  killed  before  many  minutes.  Lieu- 
tenant Palacios  succeeded  him,  but  before  the  action  was 
over  he  was  severely  wounded,  and  the  command  fell  to 
Lieutenant  Garezon.  By  this  time  the  Huascar  was  quite 
disabled. 

Her  steam-steering  gear  was  rendered  useless  by  the 
same  shell  that  killed  the  admiral,  and  from  that  time  she 
was  steered  by  tackles  managed  below  ;  there  were  no 
speaking  tubes  from  the  deck  to  where  the  tackles  were 
operated,  and  orders  had  to  be  passed  by  messengers, 
which  caused  much  confusion  and  totally  prevented  rapid 
evolutions.  One  of  the  turret  guns  was  disabled,  and  the 
turret  could  not  be  turned.  The  flag  of  the  Huascar  was 
shot  away,  and  there  was  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  which 
were  resumed  as  soon  as  the  flag  went  up  again  ;  she 
made  several  attempts  to  ram  her  opponents,  but  each 
one  failed,  and  the  same  was  the  case  with  the  Chilian 
endeavors  to  destroy  her  in  the  same  way.  Both  sides 
kept  up  a  severe  fire  with  machine  guns,  the  Huascar  be- 
ing equipped  with  the  Catling  while  the  Chilians  carried 
the  Nordenfeldt.  Her  machine-gun  fire  was  silenced, 
whether  by  the  superiority  of  the  number  of  the  Chilian 
guns,  or  their  effectiveness,  is  a  matter  of  dispute  between 
the  advocates  of  the  rival  systems. 

At  eleven  o'clock,  one  hour  and  a  half  after  the  action 
began,  the  Huascar  s  flag  was  hauled  down,  and  she  was 


BATTLE    OF  MIRAFLORES.  439 

boarded  by  a  boat  from  the  Cochrane.  Lieutenant  Garc- 
zon  surrendered  to  the  boarding  officers,  who  found  that 
there  were  three  feet  of  water  in  the  ship's  hold,  and  the 
Hning  of  the  pilot  turret  had  caught  fire.  Dead  and 
wounded  were  lying  in  every  direction,  their  bodies  fear- 
fully mutilated,  and  the  captain's  cabin  was  literally  filled 
with  corpses.  Upper  and  lower  decks  were  alike  drenched 
in  blood  and  strewn  with  dead  and  wounded.  The  Huascar 
went  into  action  with  193  officers  and  men  ;  of  this  number, 
64,  almost  exactly  one  third,  were  killed  or  wounded,  and 
the  officer  by  whom  the  ship  was  surrendered  was  the 
sixth  in  rank  when  the  battle  began,  only  90  minutes  be- 
fore. The  five  who  ranked  him  had  been  killed  or  mor- 
tally wounded ! 

No  torpedoes  were  used  in  the  fight,  and  of  all  the  at- 
tempts at  ramming  none  were  successful.  The  contest 
was  thus  confined  to  artillery,  with  the  exception  of  the 
use  of  small-arms  and  machine  guns  when  the  vessels  were 
at  close  quarters.  The  Cochrane  fired  46  rounds,  and  the 
Blanco  31,  using  Palliser  shells.  Of  these  'jj  shots  fired  by 
the  Chilians,  only  24  touched  the  Huascar ;  the  shells  burst 
after  penetration,  showing  that  the  4|^-inch  plating  of 
the  Huascar  was  useless.  The  Huascar  fired  about  40 
rounds,  and  her  guns  were  served  rapidly  but  without  good 
aim.  Only  a  few  of  her  shot  struck  the  Cochrane.  Those 
that  struck  her  at  a  distance  of  600  yards  and  at  an  angle 
of  30  degrees  penetrated  about  three  inches,  but  were 
broken  by  the  force  of  the  impact.  They  broke  an  iron 
beam  and  started  some  of  the  bolts  and  inner  linings, 
but  compared  with  the  effect  of  the  Chilian  shells  on  the 
Huascar  they  were  of  no  serious  consequence.  The  armor 
of  the  Chilian  iron-clad  is  9  inches  thick  at  the  water  line, 
and  7  or  8  inches  round  the  battery. 

With  the  capture  of  the  Huascar  the  Chilians  obtained 
practically  the  control  of  the  sea,  and  could  send  their 
troops  where  they  pleased.     They  could  despatch  a  fleet 


440  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

with  sealed  orders,  and  the  Peruvians  would  be  unable 
even  to  guess  at  what  point  it  was  directed.  The  Peru- 
vians had  a  coast  line  of  1,400  miles  to  defend,  and  the 
peculiar  formation  of  the  country  made  the  defence  of 
this  long  line  impossible.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  coast  of  Peru  is  rainless,  and  its  fertile  valleys  occur 
at  long  intervals,  between  tracts  of  waterless  deserts.  The 
railways  in  Peru  do  not  skirt  the  coast,  but  run  from  it  to 
the  interior;  in  the  southern  part  of  Peru  the  deserts 
cover  nearly  the  whole  of  the  area  of  the  country,  and  are 
backed  at  distances  varying  from  30  to  100  miles  by  the 
Cordilleras,  or  outlying  chain  of  the  Andes.  With  the 
ports  blockaded,  it  is  thus  impossible  to  move  troops  from 
one  threatened  point  to  another,  in  any  time  that  would 
render  them  of  avail. 

It  was  necessary  to  make  preparations  for  defence  along 
the  whole  line,  or,  failing  this,  to  defend  the  most  impor- 
tant points.  No  one  could  tell  where  the  attack  would  be 
made,  whether  on  the  capital  and  its  seaport,  Callao,  on 
the  Tacna  region,  or  on  the  district  containing  the  depos- 
its of  nitrates,  about  which  the  war  had  arisen.  The  gen- 
eral belief  in  government  circles  was  that  the  first  move- 
ment would  be  on  Tarapaca,  the  most  southern  province, 
where  the  dif^culties  of  a  defending  force  would  be  great- 
er than  at  most  other  points. 

Accordingly  great  efforts  were  made  to  concentrate  a 
force  in  Tarapaca  before  communication  by  sea  should  be 
cut  off,  and  Peruvian  troops  arrived  there  during  March, 
April,  and  May.  The  Bolivian  army,  4,000  strong,  reached 
Tacna,  in  Peru,  on  the  30th  April,  under  command  of  the 
President  of  Bolivia,  and  about  three  weeks  later  the 
Peruvian  President,  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  military 
forces,  arrived  in  Arica,  the  port  of  Tacna,  to  organize  the 
army  of  Tarapaca.  There  was  a  total  of  9,000  men  alto- 
gether, but  the  cavalry  was  badly  mounted,  and  the 
artillery  (16  guns)  was  of   the    old-fashioned    kind,    and 


BATTLE    OF  MIRAFLORES.  44 1 

quite  inefficient  against  the  breech-loading  pieces  of  the 
Chilians. 

The  Chilians  assembled  at  Antofagasta  an  army  of 
10,000  men,  with  850  well-mounted  cavalry,  and  32  long- 
range  field-guns  of  the  newest  pattern.  This  force  was 
embarked  on  four  men-of-war  and  fifteen  transports,  and 
sailed  on  the  28th  October  for  an  unknown  destination, 
which  afterwards  proved  to  be  Pisagua,  274  miles  from 
Antofagasta.  By  a  blunder  the  medical  stores  and  ambu- 
lances were  left  behind,  and  as  a  consequence  most  of  the 
Chilians  wounded  in  the  attack  on  Pisagua  died  of  neg- 
lect. Pisagua  was  defended  by  a  force  of  less  than  1,000 
altogether  ;  they  succeeded  in  killing  235  of  the  invaders 
before  retreating  from  the  place,  but  their  own  loss  was 
greater,  owing  to  the  heavy  fire  of  the  Chilian  men-of-war. 
Pisagua  was  occupied  by  the  Chilians  on  the  2d  Novem- 
ber, and  before  the  end  of  the  month  the  combined  armies 
of  Peru  and  Bolivia  had  been  defeated  in  two  battles,  one 
near  Iquique  and  the  other  at  Tarapaca.  They  retreated  to 
Arica,  which  they  reached  on  the  1 6th  December,  and 
found  blockaded  by  the  Chilian  fleet. 

The  province  of  Tarapaca  was  thus  wrested  from  Peru 
in  a  single  short  campaign,  and  Chili  was  in  possession  of 
the  much-coveted  nitrate  districts.  In  February,  1880,  a 
second  campaign  was  undertaken,  and  a  fleet  sailed  from 
Pisagua  for  the  conquest  of  the  Tacna  region.  The  plan 
was  for  the  Chilians  to  make  a  landing  north  of  Arica,  the 
port  of  Tacna,  where  the  allied  army  was  concentrated, 
and  thus  cut  off  the  line  of  retreat.  When  this  was  ac- 
complished the  allies  would  be  attacked  in  their  isolated 
position,  where  escape  would  be  next  to  impossible. 

The  plan  was  carried  out  by  landing  14,000  men  at  Ylo, 
Pacocha,  and  Islay,  and  taking  possession  of  the  lines  of 
railway  extending  into  the  interior.  Tacna  was  taken, 
and  after  it  Arica,  the  defeated  allies  being  driven  to  the 
mountains.     Arica  was  taken   by  a   combined  naval  and 


442  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

land  attack;  its  garrison  made  a  vigorous  defence,  and 
only  yielded  to  superior  numbers  and  weight  of  metal. 
Meantime  Callao  was  blockaded,  and  there  was  great 
alarm  in  Lima.  General  Pierolawas  named  dictator  of  Peru, 
and  a  levy  en  masse  of  all  able  to  bear  arms  was  ordered. 
It  was  impossible  for  the  Peruvians,  without  a  navy,  to 
raise  the  blockade  of  Callao,  but  they  showed  considerable 
ingenuity  in  destroying  one  of  the  blockaders. 

One  afternoon  a  small  vessel  laden  with  fruit  was  cap- 
tured while  trying  to  steal  her  way  along  the  coast,  about 
i6  miles  from  Callao.  Her  crew  dropped  the  anchor 
and  fled  to  the  shore  in  a  row-boat  as  they  saw  their  cap- 
tors approaching.  The  Chilians  took  her  alongside  the 
armed  transport  Loa,  and  began  removing  her  cargo, — a 
welcome  prize  to  men  who  had  been  living  for  weeks  on 
salt  provisions.  As  the  last  package  was  removed  there 
was  a  terrific  explosion,  which  blew  a  large  hole  in  the 
side  of  the  Loa,  and  sent  her  to  the  bottom  of  the  ocean 
in  5  minutes,  with  her  captain,  3  officers,  and  50  men  ;  38 
of  the  crew  were  saved  by  boats  from  neutral  men-of-war, 
lying  about  4  miles  away.  It  is  supposed  that  there  was 
a  case  of  250  pounds  of  dynamite,  fired  by  mechanism  so 
arranged  that  the  removal  of  the  weight  above  it  would 
set  it  off. 

A  few  weeks  later  the  Chilian  armed  steamer  Covadonga 
was  destroyed  by  another  ingenious  trick  of  the  Peruvians. 
She  had  been  sent  to  blockade  the  port  of  Chancay,  and 
her  captain,  seeing  a  smart-looking  gig  anchored  in  the 
harbor,  about  300  yards  from  the  mole,  sent  a  mid- 
shipman with  a  boat  to  bring  it  away.  It  was  freshly 
painted  and  fully  equipped,  and  was  a  life-boat,  with  air- 
boxes  at  both  ends.  The  boat  pleased  the  captain  so 
much  that  he  determined  to  use  her  for  a  gig,  and  accord- 
ingly gave  orders  that  she  should  be  hoisted  at  the  davits 
of  the  Covadonga. 

Hardly  were  the  tackles  hauled  taut  when  she  exploded, 


BATTLE    OF  MIRAFLORES.  443 

blowing  such  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the  ship  that  she  sank 
in  3  minutes;  115  persons  perished,  including  the  cap- 
tain; 15  men  escaped  in  one  of  the  boats,  and  50  who 
climbed  into  the  rigging  were  saved  by  Peruvian  boats 
from  the  shore.  It  is  supposed  that  the  air-boxes  Con- 
tained dynamite,  which  was  fired  by  the  pull  on  the  tackles, 
but  the  character  of  the  mechanism  is  not  known. 

In  October,  1880,  mediation  between  the  contending 
countries  was  undertaken  by  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica, but  was  unsuccessful.  A  conference  was  held  on  board 
the  U.  S.  corvette  Lackawanna,  in  the  harbor  of  Arica, 
Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Chili  each  sending  a  commissioner, 
while  the  representatives  of  the  United  States  for  the 
respective  countries  were  present. 

Immediately  after  the  unsuccessful  issue  of  the  confer- 
ence, Chili  despatched  an  expeditionary  force  of  30,000 
men  for  the  conquest  of  Peru,  its  operations  being  in- 
tended to  capture  the  capital.  The  exact  strength  of  the 
army  was  1,202  officers  and  24,956  men,  of  all  arms,  with 
103  cannon,  'j'j  mountain  pieces,  8  Catlings,  and  3  Norden- 
feldt's.  It  was  in  three  divisions  and  a  reserve.  One  di- 
vision landed  at  Pisco  and  marched  overland,  107  miles, 
to  Curayaco  and  Chilca,  where  the  rest  of  the  expedi- 
tionary force  was  put  on  shore.  Chilca  is  only  25  miles 
from  Lima  and  about  10  from  the  rich  valley  of  Lurin, 
one  of  the  garden  spots  of  Peru.  To  oppose  this  army 
of  well-equipped  invaders  the  Peruvians,  had  four  divi- 
sions of  a  nominal  aggregate  strength  of  20,000.  Less 
than  3,000  were  worthy  of  consideration  as  veterans.  The 
greater  part  of  the  army  of  the  defence  was  composed  of 
raw  and  badly  armed  troops,  procured  by  the  levy  en 
masse  of  all  males  in  Lima  between  the  ages  of  sixteen 
and  sixty  and  capable  of  bearing  arms.  The  artillery  was 
numerically  about  equal  to  that  of  the  Chilians,  but  vastly 
inferior  in  range  and  effectiveness. 

General  Pierola,  dictator  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 


444  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

military  forces  of  Peru,  decided  upon  a  line  of  defences 
along  the  sandy  hills  at  the  edge  of  the  desert,  extending 
from  the  Morro  Solar  and  Chorillos  to  the  mountains  on 
the  east,  and  about  ten  miles  from  Lima.  The  line  was 
fully  six  miles  long,  and  broken  by  barren  hills  and  gul- 
lies. Breastworks  were  hastily  thrown  up,  ditches  dug, 
and  guns  mounted,  but  in  many  places  the  obstructions 
to  an  advance  of  the  enemy  were  of  little  consequence 
owing  to  the  shallowness  of  the  ditches  and  the  insuf- 
ficiency of  the  breastworks. 

A  second  line  about  four  miles  long  and  six  miles  from 
Lima  was  prepared  just  outside  Miraf^ores.  Behind  the 
defences,  as  the  Chilian  army  approached,  General  Pierola 
assembled  his  forces,  which  consisted  of  the  hastily  as- 
sembled people  of  the  capital,  raw  recruits  from  the  in- 
terior, and  the  few  soldiers  he  had  been  able  to  gather 
from  the  remnants  of  the  armies  defeated  at  Tarapaca 
and  Tacna.  Many  of  the  guns  that  were  mounted  in  the 
defences  were  actually  unserviceable,  and  some  of  the 
newest  of  those  made  at  Lima  had  not  been  sighted. 

The  first  division  of  the  Chilian  army  which  landed  at 
Pisco  marched  northward  on  the  13th  December  to  unite 
with  the  force  that  disembarked  at  Curayaco,  as  already 
stated.  Their  advance  was  unopposed  until  the  23d, 
when  they  encountered  some  Peruvian  cavalry,  by  which 
they  were  harassed  for  two  or  three  days,  as  the  road 
offered  concealment  in  the  shape  of  trees  and  bushes. 
The  second  division  reached  Curayaco  on  the  22d,  and  the 
landing  occupied  two  days.  The  cavalry  was  sent  for- 
ward to  occupy  the  valley  of  the  Lurin,  and  on  the  27th 
it  surprised  and  captured  a  Peruvian  cavalry  detachment, 
the  same  that  had  impeded  the  march  of  the  Chilian  first 
division.  This  was  a  serious  disaster  for  the  Peruvians,  as 
their  whole  cavalry  force  defending  Lima  did  not  exceed 
600  men. 

The  valley  of  the  Lurin  was  devastated  by  the  Chilians 


BATTLE    OF  MIRAFLORES.  44^ 

in  their  leisurely  march  upon  Lima,  the  soldiers  commit- 
ting the  excesses  usually  attributable  to  an  advancing 
army  in  an  enemy's  country.  The  Chilians  remained 
three  weeks  in  the  Lurin  valley,  the  time  being  spent  in 
collecting  provisions,  getting  every  thing  in  readiness  for 
the  advance,  maturing  plans  for  the  capture  of  Lima,  and 
ascertaining  as  fully  as  possible  the  strength  and  position 
of  the  Peruvians. 

From  the  upper  part  of  the  Lurin  valley  there  is  a  road 
following  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  and  crossing  a  strip 
of  desert  to  Ate,  a  little  village  in  a  corner  of  the  valley 
in  which  Lima  is  situated.  The  Chilian  commander  sent 
a  reconnoitring  expedition  as  far  as  Ate,  to  ascertain  the 
state  of  the  defences  in  that  region  ;  as  this  road  passed 
around  the  extreme  left  of  the  Peruvian  line,  it  was  con- 
templated to  turn  completely  the  Peruvian  position  by 
marching  around  to  Ate  and  reaching  Lima  by  the  rear. 
After  careful  deliberation  the  plan  was  rejected,  as  there 
is  not  a  drop  of  water  for  fifteen  miles  over  the  desert ;  the 
debouch  into  the  plain  in  face  of  an  enemy  would  have 
been  difficult,  and  the  inland  route  would  prevent  all  co- 
operation by  the  fleet.     A  direct  attack  was  decided  upon. 

The  1st  Chilian  division  under  General  Lynch  formed 
the  left  wing  of  the  attacking  army.  It  was  to  assault 
the  line  of  defence  between  Morro  Solar  and  Santa  Teresa, 
and  then  push  against  Chorillos,  which  lies  on  the  coast 
about  half-way  between  the  two  lines  of  defence.  The 
2d  division  under  General  Sotomayor  was  to  break  the 
line  in  front  of  San  Juan,  and  then  co-operate  with  Lynch 
against  Chorillos.  The  3d  division,  commanded  by  Colonel 
Lagos,  was  on  the  extreme  right ;  it  was  to  hold  the  Peru- 
vian left  in  check,  or  support  the  centre  as  cirumstances 
might  require,  and  the  reserve,  under  Colonel  Martinez, 
was  in  the  space  between  the  left  and  centre,  ready  to 
mov(i  in  whatever  direction  it  was  ordered. 

The  Peruvian  commander-in-chief  had  his  head-quarters 


446  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

at  Chorillos,  and  his  army  was  encamped  behind  the  lines 
of  defence.  Colonel  Iglesias  with  5,000  men  held  the  right 
of  the  line  under  the  brow  of  the  Morro  Solar.  General 
Caceres  held  the  centre,  which  was  stationed  at  the  hills 
of  Santa  Teresa  and  San  Juan,  while  General  Davila  held 
the  left.  The  division  of  Suarez  formed  the  reserve.  The 
Chilian  plan  was  to  march  from  Lurin  on  the  evening  of 
the  1 2th  January,  and  attack  the  line  of  Peruvian  defen- 
ces at  daylight  on  the  13th.  The  three  divisions  marched 
accordingly,  and  bivouacked  at  midnight  on  a  plateau 
about  two  miles  in  front  of  the  Peruvian  position. 

At  dawn  they  all  advanced.  The  1st  division,  the  one 
nearest  the  sea,  had  the  shortest  distance  to  move,  and  by 
5  A.M.  it  was  smartly  engaged  with  the  Peruvians.  The 
Chilian  men-of-war  hauled  in  as  near  the  shore  as  they 
could  with  safety,  and  began  to  throw  shot  and  shell 
among  the  Peruvians.  The  latter  held  their  positions  gal- 
lantly in  spite  of  the  preponderance  against  them,  until 
the  Chilian  reserve  was  brought  up  with  orders  to  attack 
on  the  flank  of  the  Peruvian  right  wing,  which  was  then 
forced  back  but  not  broken.  At  6  A.M.  the  Chilian  2d 
division  attacked  the  defences  in  front  of  San  Juan,  and 
carried  them  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  ;  at  the  same 
time  the  3d  division  attacked  the  Peruvian  left,  who  held 
their  position  until  7.30,  when  the  line  wavered  and  re- 
treated. The  Chilian  cavalry  was  then  started  along  the 
road  to  Tebes,  and  cut  down  the  fugitives  in  great  num- 
ber. Those  who  escaped  from  the  attack  of  the  Chilian 
3d  division  fled  in  the  direction  of  Lima,  while  the  divi- 
sion of  Caceres  fell  back  upon  Chorillos. 

Colonel  Iglesias  held  the  Morro  Solar,  and  the  Chilians 
proceeded  to  attack  him  in  front  with  their  ist  division, 
while  the  reserve  came  in  upon  the  Peruvians  on  the  op- 
posite side.  The  2d  Chilian  division  advanced  upon  Chor- 
illos by  the  San  Juan  road,  and  the  rest  of  the  troops 
were  held  in  waiting  near  the  houses  of  San  Juan.     Igle- 


BATTLE    OF  M  IRA  FLO  RES.  44/ 

sias  maintained  himself  for  several  hours,  but  was  finally 
driven  to  the  point  of  Chorillos  where  he  surrendered  in 
order  to  prevent  further  slaughter.  The  reserve  under 
Suarez  should  have  reinforced  Iglesias,  but  owing  to  a  con- 
flict of  orders  it  did  not.  A  portion  of  the  reserve  was 
engaged  with  the  Chilian  2d  division,  but  was  driven  back, 
and  by  2  P.M.  the  fighting  was  over  and  Chorillos  was  in 
possession  of  the  Chilians,  who  speedily  sacked  and  burned 
it. 

The  losses  of  the  Chilians  were  reported  at  2,000  killed 
and  wounded,  and  the  Peruvian  loss  was  placed  at  double 
that  number.  As  soon  as  the  defence  of  Chorillos  became 
hopeless.  General  Pierola  and  his  staff  with  their  escort 
retired  to  Miraflores,  where  they  busied  themselves  with 
endeavors  to  put  the  second  line  of  defence  in  condition 
to  repel  the  advance  of  the  Chilians. 

No  advance  was  made  on  the  14th  January.  On  the 
15th,  the  diplomatic  corps  in  Lima  endeavored  to  prevent 
further  bloodshed,  and  asked  for  a  suspension  of  hostilities, 
which  was  granted,  though  the  Chilian  commander  insist- 
ed upon  carrying  out  a  movement  of  troops  that  had  been 
commenced.  The  armistice  was  to  last  until  midnight  of 
the  15th,  but  it  was  broken  by  a  collision  of  the  troops  of 
the  contending  armies,  through  a  misunderstanding  of 
their  commanders  at  one  point.  From  this  collision  the 
action  became  general. 

The  second  line  of  defence  was  stronger  than  the  first, 
as  it  was  better  mounted  with  artillery,  and  the  water- 
courses were  utilized  as  far  as  possible  to  serve  as  ditches 
in  front  of  the  breastworks.  There  were  five  redoubts  on 
this  line  mounted  with  artillery  and  with  intrenchments 
between  them.  The  line  was  defended  by  about  12,000 
Peruvians,  and  the  assaulting  force  was  about  13,000 
strong.  Miraflores  was  the  central  point  of  the  position, 
and  between  Miraflores  and  the  sea  the  line  was  con- 
tinued to  a  semicircular  redoubt  on  the  extreme  rieht  of 


448  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

the  Peruvians.  This  redoubt  was  mounted  with  two 
heavy  Rodman  guns  from  Callao,  and  was  called  the 
Alfonso  Ugarte  fort,  in  honor  of  an  officer  who  fell  in 
the  defence  of  Arica.  General  Caceres  commanded  this 
fort,  while  General  Pierola  was  in  a  redoubt  on  the  left. 

The  battle  began  at  2.45  P.M.  The  Chilians  opened 
with  artillery  on  the  Ugarte  fort,  which  was  enfiladed 
by  the  Chilian  fleet,  consisting  of  two  ironclads  and  three 
corvettes.  They  speedily  dismounted  the  Rodman  guns 
and  rendered  the  fort  untenable  by  their  well-directed 
fire,  but  the  Peruvians  continued  the  defence  until,  after 
a  long  bombardment,  the  Chilian  3d  division  advanced 
against  them.  At  4.30  P.M.  the  Peruvians  had  exhausted 
their  ammunition  and  fell  back  to  join  the  centre,  thus 
yielding  the  Ugarte  fort  to  the  Chilians.  The  Peruvian 
left  was  defended  with  such  vigor  that  at  one  time  the 
Chilians  wavered,  but,  reinforcements  coming  up,  they 
carried  the  redoubts  with  the  bayonet,  and  the  last  hope 
of  Lima  was  gone.  The  centre  redoubt  was  carried  at 
5.45  P.M.,  and  thus  ended  the  battle  of  Miraflores  for  the 
defence  of  Lima.  When  the  last  redoubt  was  carried, 
General  Pierola  rode  from  the  field  and  retired  to  the 
village  of  Canta  in  the  mountains.  By  6.45  Miraflores 
was  in  flames  and  nearly  all  the  houses  in  it  were  de- 
stroyed. 

On  the  1 6th  the  municipal  alcalde  surrendered  the  city 
to  the  Chilians,  and  on  the  17th  the  army  entered  and  took 
possession.  The  foreign  ministers  interfered  to  prevent 
further  destruction  of  property,  and  were  backed  in  their 
intervention  by  the  foreign  fleets  in  the  harbor  of  Callao. 
The  dangerous  classes  threatened  to  run  riot  during  the 
night  of  the  i6th,  and  would  have  caused  great  damage  to 
the  city  had  it  not  been  for  the  foreigners,  who  formed  a 
volunteer  corps  for  the  preservation  of  order  and  property. 
The  Chilian  losses  in  the  capture  of  Chorillos  and  Mira- 
flores were  reported  at    1,299  l^^iHed   and  4,144   wounded. 


BA  TTLE    OF  MIKAFLOKES.  449 

The  Peruvian  losses  were  estimated  at  6,000  killed  and 
3,000  wounded,  but  owing  to  the  confusion  the  exact 
figures  were  never  ascertained. 

The  battle  of  Miraflores  decided  the  fate  of  Peru, 
though  it  was  some  time  thereafter  before  the  war  came 
to  an  end.  Expeditions  were  sent  to  various  points  in 
the  interior,  and  there  was  considerable  fighting,  though 
no  battles  of  consequence  took  place.  In  January  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  made  between  Chili  and  Bolivia,  by 
which  the  latter  surrendered  her  coast  provinces  to  Chili 
and  agreed  to  break  off  relations  with  Peru.  In  the 
following  year,  after  long  negotiations,  Chili  and  Peru 
agreed  upon  terms  of  peace,  the  latter  ceding  her  south- 
ern provinces  and  paying  a  war  indemnity  that  left  the 
country  sadly  impoverished.  Peru  was  already  heavily 
burdened  with  debt  in  consequence  of  her  enormous 
expenditures  for  railways  and  other  public  improvements. 
She  is  slowly  emerging  from  the  depressed  condition  in 
which  she  was  thrown  by  the  war,  but  it  will  be  many 
years  before  she  recovers  her  former  position  among  the 
republics  of  South  America. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

EL     OBEID — ANNIHILATION     OF    HICKS    PASHA'S    ARMY — 

1883. 

Soudan  is  an  Arabic  word  abbreviated  from  Biled-es- 
Soudan,  "The  Country  of  the  Blacks."  On  the  map  of 
Africa  it  stretches  nearly  across  the  continent  between 
the  sixth  and  sixteenth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  in- 
cludes a  vast  area.  The  Egyptian  Soudan,  which  is  the 
Soudan  of  this  chapter,  includes  the  region  drained  by  the 
White  Nile  and  its  immediate  tributaries,  the  Blue  Nile, 
the  Atbara  and  Sobat  rivers,  together  with  the  country 
between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea,  north  of  the  boundary 
of  Abyssinia.  It  may  be  roughly  said  to  have  an  area  of 
2,500,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  about  12,- 
000,000.  One  fourth  of  the  inhabitants  are  Arabs  and 
kindred  tribes,  and  the  remaining  9,000,000  are  negroes. 
All  the  Arabs  and  many  of  the  negroes  are  Moslems,  but 
it  is  probable  that  fully  half  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Sou- 
dan do  not  belong  to  the  religion  of  Mohammed,  though 
it  has  made  rapid  strides  among  them  during  the  last 
twenty  years. 

From  the  days  of  Moses  to  the  present  time  the  rulers 
of  Egypt  have  been  the  reverse  of  mild  in  their  treatment 
of  their  subjects.  In  all  ages  the  Egyptian  peasantry  have 
been  regarded  as  the  property  of  the  sovereign  ;  the  many 
changes  of  dynasty  have  made  little  difference  in  the  lot 
of  the  laboring  classes  in  the  most  fertile  land  of  the 
globe.     From  the  heights  of  the  pyramids  "  forty  centuries 

450 


451 


452  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

look  down  upon  us,"  and  they  are  forty  centuries  of  almost 
unvarying  oppression.  In  the  fourth  dynasty  of  the  an- 
cient empire  the  pyramids  were  built  by  the  unpaid  labor 
of  the  people,  and  in  the  same  way  the  great  canal  con- 
necting Alexandria  with  the  Nile  w^as  made  by  Moham- 
med Ali  Pasha,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  which  now 
occupies  the  khedivial  throne.  The  splendors  of  the  an- 
cient rulers  have  been  imitated  by  those  of  modern  times, 
and  the  result  is  that  the  country  is  oppressively  burdened 
with  taxation  and  hopelessly  involved  in  debt.  At  present 
the  foreign  debt  of  the  country  exceeds  ^100,000,000,  or 
$500,000,000,  without  including  the  Moukabalah,  or  forced 
interior  debt,  which  amounts  to  many  millions  more.  The 
population  of  Egypt  proper  is  a  little  more  than  5,000,000, 
so  that  the  national  indebtedness  exceeds  $100  for  each 
and  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  country.  The 
land  is  wonderfully  fertile,  producing  ordinarily  three 
crops  a  year  ;  but  even  with  this  fertility  it  is  impossible 
to  meet  the  expenses  of  a  costly  government  and  pay  the 
interest  on  the  enormous  debt. 

Mohammed  Ali  Pasha,  who  came  to  Egypt  as  a  Turkish 
captain  in  1799,  and  became  ruler  of  the  land  and  founder 
of  the  dynasty,  was  fond  of  war,  and  spent  large  sums  of 
money  in  its  prosecution.  He  began  the  conquest  of  the 
Soudan  by  sending  his  son  to  conquer  Nubia  and  Sennaar  ; 
in  1822  he  founded  Khartoum,  at  the  junction  of  the  Blue 
and  White  Nile,  and  long  before  his  death  in  1848  he  had 
the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  the  flag  of  Egypt  waved 
over  a  large  area  that  it  did  not  dominate  when  he  ascended 
the  throne.  Except  in  war,  he  was  not  specially  extrava- 
gant, but  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  his  successors,  Abbas 
and  Said  Pashas.  Abbas  gave  little  attention  to  the  affairs 
of  the  government ;  he  spent  a  great  deal  of  money  on 
palaces,  abolished  the  educational  institutions  which 
Mohammed  Ali  had  established,  and  dissolved  the  army 
in  order  to  have   for  his  personal  use  the  money  which  a 


EL    OBEID.  453 

military  system  would  require.  His  successor,  Said  Pasha, 
was  peacefully  inclined,  and  undertook  several  public  works. 
The  Suez  Canal  was  begun  during  his  reign,  and  his 
memory  is  preserved  in  the  name  of  Port  Said,  the  arti- 
ficial harbor  at  the  Mediterranean  entrance  of  the  canal. 
But  he  had  the  mania  for  extravagancies  which  character- 
ized his  predecessor,  and  at  his  death  in  1863  he  left  a 
legacy  of  debt  to  his  successor,  Ismail. 

Little  was  done  under  Abbas  Pasha  and  his  successor, 
Said,  for  the  extension  of  Egyptian  dominion  beyond 
what  had  been  left  by  Mohammed  AH.  The  fever  of 
conquest  broke  out  anew  with  Ismail,  and  soon  after  his 
accession  to  the  throne  he  sent  his  armies  into  the  regions 
of  the  Upper  Nile,  which  he  rapidly  added  to  his  dominions. 
From  Khartoum,  which  had  been,  since  its  foundation  in 
1822,  the  frontier  city,  his  dominion  was  rapidly  pushed 
into  the  Soudan,  and  in  the  ten  years  between  1868  and 
1878  the  Egyptian  fiag  was  carried  more  than  1,000  miles 
southward,  till  it  floated  on  the  shores  of  the  Central 
African  lakes.  Mohammed  All's  conquests  were  under- 
taken largely  with  the  view  of  obtaining  soldiers  for  his 
army.  The  men  of  the  Soudan  were  sent  captive  to  Cairo 
and  converted  into  soldiers,  under  the  training  of  French 
ofificers  ;  during  and  since  Mohammed  Ali's  time  the  flower 
of  the  Egyptian  army  has  been  the  Soudanese  portion,  and 
at  times  there  have  been  not  less  than  25,000  or  30,000 
soldiers  under  the  flag,  every  man  of  whom  came  from  the 
provinces  of  the  Upper  Nile.  The  Soudanese  are  naturally 
warlike,  can  endure  heat,  fatigue,  and  privation,  and  in 
every  way  are  vastly  superior  to  the  fellaheen  of  Lower 
Egypt,  whose  courage  and  fighting  qualities  were  extin- 
guished centuries  ago  by  the  oppression  under  which  they 
lived.  The  Soudanese  did  not  specially  object  to  being 
converted  into  soldiers,  and  if  the  pashas  had  been  content 
with  a  few  thousands  of  them  annually,  had  kept  the  slave 
trade  under  proper  restrictions,  and  avoided  the  imposition 


454  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

of  enormous  taxes  and  the  cruelties  accompanying  their 
collection,  Egypt  would  to-day  be  in  possession  of  Central 
Africa  down  to  the  shores  of  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza. 

A  few  years  of  Egyptian  rule  in  the  conquered  provinces 
of  Central  Africa,  served  to  rouse  a  spirit  of  hostility 
among  the  inhabitants,  and  make  them  ready  for  revolt. 
On  the  appearance  of  El  Mahdi,  in  the  summer  of  1881, 
thousands  flocked  to  his  standard.  He  wasa  sheikh  named 
Mohammed  Achmet,  the  son  of  a  carpenter,  and  a  native 
of  Dongola.  He  was  born  in  1842,  and  educated  in  a 
village  near  Khartoum.  According  to  Moslem  custom, 
religion  was  his  principal  study.  In  1870  he  became  a 
sheikh,  and  after  a  brief  sojourn  at  Korka,  near  Fashoda, 
he  established  himself  on  the  island  of  Abba,  in  the  White 
Nile.  Here  he  set  up  as  a  holy  man,  or  dervish,  of  the 
highest  class,  and  soon  obtained  a  great  reputation  for 
sanctity.  After  a  while  a  considerable  number  of  dervishes 
gathered  around  him,  and  his  fame  spread  rapidly.  He 
extended  his  influence  and  power  by  marrying  daughters 
of  the  principal  chiefs  of  the  Baggara  Arabs,  the  powerful 
tribes  who  inhabit  the  country  west  of  the  White  Nile  and 
southeast  of  Kordofanand  Darfur.  They  were  constantly 
at  war  with  each  other,  and  by  his  tact  and  influence 
Mohammed  Achmet  succeeded  in  bringing  the  various 
tribes  into  harmony. 

In  May,  1881,  when  living  at  Marabieh,  near  the  island 
of  Abba,  he  suddenly  proclaimed  himself  to  be  the  Messiah, 
or  Prophet,  whose  coming  had  been  foretold  by  Moham- 
med. His  followers  styled  him  El-Mahdi,  an  Arabic  word, 
meaning  simply  a  "leader,"  or  "guide,"  and  not  found  in 
the  Koran.  The  Ulema  of  Khartoum'  promptly  pro- 
nounced against  Mohammed  Achmet ;  he  was  likewise 
repudiated  at  Cairo  and  Constantinople,  and  soon  became 
known  in  Egypt  and  Turkey  as  the  "  False  Prophet." 

'  The  Ulema  is  a  body  corresponding  to  the  Synods  in  Christendom.  They 
are  appealed  to  by  the  Sultan  respecting  the  right  application  of  precepts  of 
the  Moslem  faith. 


EL    OBEID. 


455 


The  intentions  of  Mohanamed  Achmet,  as  set  forth  in 
various  proclamations,  were  as  follows: 

To  gain  over  the  whole  of  the  Soudan  to  his  cause,  then 
march  on  Egypt,  and  overthrow  the  false-believing  Turks,  and 
finally,  to  establish  the  Thousand  Years'  Kingdom  in  Mecca, 
and  convert  the  whole  world. 

He  taught  universal  law  and  religion,  and  community  of 
goods.  All  who  opposed  his  mission  were  to  be  destroyed, 
whether  Christian,  Mohammedan,  or  Pagan. 

General  Gordon  gave  his  view  of  the  Mahdi  to  the  editof 
of  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette,  in  London,  on  January  8th, 
1884,  saying  :  "  I  strongly  suspect  that  he  (the  Mahdi)  is  a 
mere  puppet  put  forward  byElyas,  Zubair's  father-in-law, 
and  the  largest  slave-owner  in  Obeid,  and  that  he  has 
assumed  a  religious  title  to  give  color  to  the  defence  of 
the  popular  rights."  Probably  the  suppression  of  the 
slave-trade  had  much  to  do  with  the  insurrection,  as  most 
of  the  supporters  of  the  Mahdi,  more  especially  the  Baggara 
tribes,  owe  all  their  wealth  to  the  traffic  in  slaves,  which 
the  Egyptian  government  has  for  many  years  been  taking 
measures  to  suppress  or  greatly  curtail. 

The  Soudan  rebellion  was  an  echo  of  the  revolt  of 
Arabi  Pasha  in  Lower  Egypt.  Arabi  Pasha  was  the  leader 
of  the  national  party,  which  protested  against  the  control 
of  Egypt  by  foreigners,  the  exemption  of  foreigners  living 
in  Egypt  from  taxation,  the  diversion  of  the  revenues  of 
the  country  to  the  foreign  creditors  of  Egypt  while  the 
oflficers  of  the  army  and  other  public  servants  remained 
unpaid,  the  employment  of  foreigners  in  public  places  when 
the  same  work  could  be  done  by  Egyptians  at  one  fifth  the 
cost,  and  the  general  tyranny  and  oppression  of  the  Turkish 
rulers  of  the  country.  The  movement  of  the  Mahdi 
began  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  Arabi,  and,  though  it 
soon  assumed  a  religious  aspect,  it  was  practically  political 
at  the  start.     The  misrule  of  the  Egyptians  had  made  an 


456  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

intolerable  state  of  things,  and  when  the  Mahdi  raised  the 
flag  of  rebellion  the  oppressed  people,  whether  Pagans  or 
Moslems,  flocked  around  him.  The  best  war  cry  for  a 
rebellion  in  any  part  of  the  world  is  a  religious  one,  and 
the  Mahdi  shrewdly  proclaimed  himself  the  divine  mes- 
senger. Not  long  after  his  trial  and  banishment  to  Ceylon, 
Arabi  Pasha  said  to  an  English  visitor:  "  Rely  on  it,  if 
Ceylon  had  been  governed  like  the  Soudan,  you  would 
have  had  your  Mahdi  to  deal  with  ;  and  had  the  Soudan 
been  governed  like  Ceylon,  we  should  never  have  heard  of 
the  Mahdi." 

The  time  which  the  Mahdi  had  selected  for  rising  was 
after  the  garrisons  of  the  Soudan  had  been  diminished  for 
economical  reasons.  In  July,  1881,  the  attention  of  Raouf 
Pasha,  Governor-General  of  the  Soudan,  was  drawn  to  the 
Mahdi's  claims  and  demands,  and  he  sent  a  commission  of 
inquiry  from  Khartoum  to  see  the  Mahdi  at  Marabieh, 
and  learn  the  exact  state  of  affairs.  On  the  return  of  this 
commission,  it  was  decided  to  send  a  military  force  of  about 
200  men  to  bring  the  Mahdi  to  Khartoum.  The  expedi- 
tion started  early  in  1882,  and  reached  the  residence  of 
the  Mahdi,  where  it  was  attacked  and  defeated  by  his 
followers,  120  men  and  2  officers  being  killed  or  captured. 
Another  expedition  met  the  same  fate,  being  driven  back 
with  loss,  and  in  June,  1882,  Yussuf  Pasha's  army  of  the 
Soudan  of  6,000  men  was  practically  destroyed,  all  the 
soldiers,  save  a  few  hundreds,  being  killed  or  captured. 
The  Mahdi  then  took  the  offensive  ;  he  attacked  Bara,  but 
was  repulsed,  and  three  times  he  attacked  El  Obeid,  the 
capital  of  Kordofan.  Finally,  he  captured  Bara,  and  then 
El  Obeid  surrendered,  most  of  the  Egyptian  garrison 
taking  service  with  their  captor. 

On  the  20th  February,  1883,  the  Pashas  Ala-ed-Deen  and 
Suleiman  Nyasi  arrived  at  Khartoum.  The  latter  was  to 
take  command  of  the  troops ;  the  duties  of  the  former 
were  not  announced,  though  it  was  whispered  that  he  was 


EL    OBEID.  457 

to  be  appointed  Governor-General  of  the  Soudan.  On  the 
4th  of  March  Colonel  Hicks  (late  of  Bombay  Staff  Corps), 
with  6  other  English  ofificers,  arrived  at  Khartoum.  Col- 
onel Hicks  had  been  appointed  Chief  of  the  Staff  of  the 
Army  of  the  Soudan,  with  the  local  rank  of  Major-General. 
It  was  really  intended  that  he  should  direct  and  be  respon- 
sible for  all  preparations  and  movements.  Practically, 
he  was  commander-in-chief,  though  ostensibly  holding 
a  subordinate  position.  The  Mahdi's  movement  being, 
theoretically  at  least,  a  religious  one,  it  was  not  considered 
advisable  to  place  a  foreigner  and  a  non-Mussulman  in 
command  of  the  Egyptian  forces,  as  the  insurgent  leader 
might  use  this  circumstance  to  arouse  the  fanaticism  of  his 
adherents. 

Suleiman  Nyasi,  whose  military  career  dated  back  to  the 
time  of  Mohammed  Ali,  was  named  commander-in-chief, 
but  with  the  understanding  that  he  was  to  follow  and 
execute  implicitly  General  Hicks'  instructions  and  plans. 
Suleiman  was  old,  stupid,  and  lazy,  and  also  hostile  to  the 
work  before  him,  and  jealous  of  General  Hicks.  The 
result  was,  that  he  frequently  acted  quite  contrary  to  the 
spirit  of  the  instructions  he  had  received  at  Cairo. 

On  the  1 8th  March  Major  Farquhar,  Hicks'  companion 
officer,  returned  to  Khartoum  from  a  reconnoissance  up 
the  White  Nile,  and  reported  that  the  people  along  the 
western  bank  of  the  river  were  hostile.  Four  thousand 
five  hundred  rebels  and  1,800  Baggara  Arab  cavalry  were 
assembled  at  Marabieh  and  Abu  Dynma,  while  at  Jebel- 
Ain  there  was  a  considerable  force  from  Kordofan.  The 
news  came  from  the  latter  country  that  the  Mahdi's  force 
was  100,000  strong;  it  was  scattered  at  various  points,  but 
could  be  speedily  brought  together.  The  chiefs  met  at  El 
Obeid  once  a  week  for  orders  and  consultation,  but  the 
sheikhs  of  the  Baggara  tribes  did  not  attend  these  meet- 
ings, owing  to  a  quarrel  with  the  Mahdi  concerning  the 
booty  taken  at  El  Obeid.     At   the  loot   of   El   Obeid,  in 


458  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

January,  1883,  the  Mahdi  was  said  to  have  taken  more 
than  i^  100,000  from  the  officials  and  notables,  which  he 
kept  to  himself,  distributing  nothing  among  his  followers. 
On  account  of  this  worldly  performance,  many  began  to 
waver  in  their  belief  in  his  sanctity.  In  the  hope  of  util- 
izing this  discontent,  General  Hicks  endeavored  to  open 
communications  with  the  Baggara  chiefs,  and  arrange  a 
meeting  with  them. 

On  the  26th  March  Ala-ed-Deen  Pasha  was  proclaimed 
at  Khartoum  as  Governor-General  of  the  Soudan,  and  on 
the  same  day  Hussein  Pasha  left  for  Sennaar  to  relieve 
Abd-el-Kader  Pasha  of  his  military  command.  By  this 
time  the  Mahdi  had  made  rapid  progress  with  his  revolt. 
He  had  taken  possession  of  Kordofan,  Sennaar,  and  Darfur, 
and  the  forces  under  his  command  were  variously  esti- 
mated at  from  100,000  to  200,000  strong. 

General  Hicks  and  staff  left  Khartoum  by  steamer  on 
the  3d  April,  and  arrived  at  Kawa  on  the  6th.  An  army 
of  about  5,000  had  been  collected  at  Kawa,  consisting  of 
5^  battalions  of  regular  infantry,  i^  battalions  of  negroes, 
5  guns,  2  Nordenfelts,  and  a  squadron  of   Bashi-Bazouks. 

On  the  loth  April  General  Hicks  made  a  reconnoissance 
up  the  Nile.  After  steaming  about  an  hour  and  a  half, 
the  boat  was  fired  on  from  the  western  bank.  As  it  ad- 
vanced, many  shots  were  fired  at  it,  especially  from  a  point 
opposite  the  island  of  Abba,  where  the  rebels  were  behind 
trenches.  On  the  14th  the  general  telegraphed  to  Cairo 
that  he  was  anxious  to  get  to  Jebel-Ain,  where  the  rebels 
were  concentrating,  -but  that  he  had  great  difficulty  in 
obtaining  supplies  of  food  and  ammunition. 

It  was  not  till  the  23d  April  that  the  Egyptian  army, 
nearly  5,000  strong,  started  to  ascend  the  Nile  from  Kawa. 
Shots  were  fired  from  the  banks  almost  continuously,  and 
General  Hicks  learned  from  the  chief  of  a  Shillook  village 
that  the  rebels  were  getting  ready  to  attack  the  Egyptians 
on  the  march  from  Kawa.     Having  satisfied  himself  of  the 


EL    OBEID.  459 

correctness  of  this  information,  General  Hicks  steamed 
back  to  the  fort  at  Abu-Zea,  to  inform  Tahier  Bey,  the 
commander  of  the  Bashi-Bazouks,  of  the  situation,  and  then 
joined  the  army,  which  was  encamped  opposite  the 
northern  end  of  the  island  of  Abba,  in  expectation  of  an 
attack.  On  the  25th  April  some  Arab  cavalry  appeared, 
but  was  put  to  flight  by  a  few  shells.  On  the  night  of  the 
27th  there  were  several  alarms,  but  no  fighting  of  conse- 
quence. 

The  march  was  renewed  on  the  28th.  On  the  29th  the 
rebels  were  reported  about  2  miles  distant,  and  advancing 
rapidly.  They  soon  appeared  in  considerable  force,  both 
cavalry  and  infantry,  and  deployed  into  a  long  line,  with 
the  evident  intention  of  attacking  the  angles  of  the  square 
in  which  the  Egyptian  troops  were  formed.  But  the  rebel 
cavalry  scattered  as  soon  as  the  shells  began  dropping 
among  them,  and  fled  in  great  confusion.  In  less  than 
30  minutes  the  whole  rebel  force  was  completely  disorgan- 
ized and  in  full  flight.  Their  numbers  were  placed  at  5,000 
men,  of  whom  they  lost  500  in  the  battle,  while  the 
Egyptians  lost  only  2  killed  and  5  wounded. 

On  the  1st  of  May  it  was  ascertained  that  the  rebels 
were  crossing  the  river  in  strong  force  about  10  miles 
below  Jebel-Ain.  General  Hicks  sent  Suleiman  Pasha  to 
intercept  them,  but  he  could  not  overtake  them  for  want  of 
cavalry ;  the  infantry  marched  so  slowly  that  it  required  two 
days  to  cover  a  distance  of  12  miles.  By  the  time  General 
Hicks  reached  Jebel-Ain,  he  found  that  the  whole  district 
had  been  evacuated.  He  decided  to  return  immediately  to 
Duem,  and  prepare  for  an  attack  on  Schatt,  where  the 
rebels  were  said  to  be  assembling  in  large  force,  but  before 
the  Egyptians  were  ready  to  move  the  rebels  again 
dispersed,  and  the  western  bank  of  the  river  was  announced 
free  from  all  but  a  few  hostile  bands. 

The  expedition  to  Kordofan  could  not  be  undertaken 
till  after  the  rains,  as  the  most  of  the  wells  in  the  desert 


460  DECISIVE   BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

would  not  be  full  until  that  time.  To  carry  out  the  expedi- 
tion successfully  General  Hicks  asked  the  Khedive  for  full 
powers,  which  arrived  on  the  20th  August.  He  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  of  the  expedition  to  Kordo- 
fan,  with  the  rank  of  General  of  Division.  General  Hicks' 
plan  was  to  leave  Khartoum  early  in  September  and  march 
up  the  banks  of  the  White  Nile  to  Berair  (16  miles  below 
Duem)  with  8,600  infantry,  1,400  cavalry  and  Bashi- 
Bazouks,  I  battery  of  Krupp  field-guns,  2  batteries  of 
mounted  guns,  i  battery  of  Nordenfeldts,  and  5,000 
camels. 

Leaving  the  river  at  Berair,  he  intended  to  advance  on 
Bara,  and  then  on  El  Obeid  ;  leaving  some  of  his  troops  in 
garrison  on  the  way,  he  would  reach  El  Obeid  with  7,000 
men,  whom  he  considered  sufficient  to  defeat  the  rebel 
forces. 

He  started  accordingly  on  the  8th  September  and  reach- 
ed Zeraig  about  30  miles  from  Duem  on  the  last  day 
of  the  month.  A  despatch  from  General  Hicks,  sent  to 
Khartoum  and  telegraphed  to  Cairo  on  the  17th  October, 
reported  as  follows  :  "  The  army  has  arrived  within  28 
miles  of  Sarakhna.  We  found  water,  but  cannot  establish 
military  posts  and  lines  of  communication.  The  place  is 
evacuated  ;  the  health  of  the  troops  is  good  but  the  heat 
is  intense." 

The  last  despatch  received  from  General  Hicks  is  dated 
October  3,  1883,  and  reads  as  follows  : 

I  left  Duem  on  the  White  Nile  and  established  military  posts 
of  200  men  each  in  strongly  fortified  places,  along  the  line  of 
march.  We  marched  to  Schatt,  and  before  reaching  Zeraig  I 
was  informed  by  the  governor-general  of  the  Soudan  that  it 
was  useless  for  me  to  expect  any  supplies  to  be  pushed  up  from 
Duem  ;  that  the  post  would  not  guard  the  convoys  ;  that  the 
Arabs,  although  now  absent  from  our  line  of  route,  would  re- 
turn after  we  had  passed,  and  that  they  would  be  numerous, 
and  the  garrisons  of  the  posts  would  not  consider  themselves 


EL  OBEID.  461 

Strong  enough  to  forward  the  supplies  ;  that  it  would  be  dan- 
gerous, and  I  would  find  they  would  not  run  the  risk.  The 
governor-general  requested  me  to  give  up  the  idea  of  having 
this  line  of  posts,  to  abandon  my  line  of  communication  and 
line  of  retreat,  and  to  advance  with  the  army  en  Pair,  with  50 
days'  supply  only,  the  Arabs  closing  in  our  rear. 

I  am  naturally  averse  to  this,  and  have  therefore  called  a 
council,  have  had  the  matter  explained,  and  requested  the  mem- 
bers to  record  their  opinions. 

For  several  weeks  after  the  receipt  of  the  foregoing 
despatch  no  news  of  the  expeditionar}'^  force  was  received. 
Messengers  were  sent  from  Duem,  along  the  various  routes 
to  Kordofan,  but,  for  a  long  time,  none  of  the  few  who 
came  back  brought  any  authentic  news. 

Finally,  on  the  19th  November,  a  messenger,  who  had 
been  unable  to  deliver  his  despatches  to  Ala-ed-Deen  Pa- 
sha returned  to  Duem,  bringing  information  of  the  total 
destruction  of  General  Hicks'  army.  The  discouraging  intel- 
ligence was  soon  confirmed  by  Arab  merchants  and  others 
who  came  from  Kordofan.  The  events  which  terminated 
with  this  terrible  disaster  to  the  Egyptians  are  still  to  a 
certain  extent  shrouded  in  mystery.  Nothing  definite  has 
ever  been  received  from  any  of  the  Europeans  accompany- 
ing the  expedition,  nor  from  any  of  the  Egyptian  staff  of- 
ficers, of  a  later  date  than  General  Hicks'  despatch  on  the 
3d  October,  quoted  above. 

The  first  account  that  appeared  to  be  trustworthy  was 
given  by  a  camel-driver  who  went  as  servant  to  a  native 
officer.  He  stated  that  the  army  on  leaving  Duem  soon 
met  the  rebels,  and  engaged  in  skirmish  with  them,  the 
Mahdi's  men  being  beaten.  It  reached  Rahad  where 
there  is  a  lake,  and  then  marched  to  Alouba,  where  an 
encounter  with  the  enemy  was  favorable  to  General  Hicks^ 
On  the  2d  of  November  the  army  left  Alouba,  and  while 
marching  through  a  forest,  was  surprised  by  a  large  force 
of  rebels.     The  Egyptians  formed  square,  and  after  fight. 


462  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE   WATERLOO. 

ing  all  day  finally  defeated  them  and  drove  them  off. 
On  Saturday,  3d  November,  the  march  was  resumed,  wa- 
ter becoming  scarce.  The  rebels  again  appeared  in  force 
and  surrounded  the  army.  A  serious  engagement  ensued 
with  heavy  losses  on  both  sides,  but  the  rebels  were  once 
more  beaten.  On  their  march  next  day  they  were  heavily 
fired  upon  by  large  numbers  of  the  enemy.  The  troops 
were  suffering  from  thirst,  but  nevertheless  fought  the 
whole  day.  On  the  5th,  when  the}^  were  approaching  the 
wells  on  the  road  to  Razghib,  only  half  an  hour  distant, 
the  rebels,  who  had  been  concealed  in  the  forest,  suddenly 
attacked  the  column  on  all  sides.  The  Egyptians  returned 
their  fire,  and  a  great  battle  raged.  Towards  mid-day,  the 
entire  force  of  the  rebels  made  a  general  charge  with  guns, 
swords,  and  spears,  and  General  Hicks  and  his  whole  army 
perished,  except  200  Egyptian  soldiers  and  a  few  negro 
servants,  most  of  whom  were  wounded. 

Besides  the  European  ofificers  believed  to  have  perished, 
there  were  two  newspaper  correspondents,  Edmund 
O'Donovan  and  Frank  Vizetelly,  who  accompanied  the 
expedition  and  have  not  since  been  heard  of. 

An  extract  of  a  letter  from  the  Mahdi's  Emir  at  Berber 
to  Zubair,  the  greatest  slave-dealer  in  the  Soudan,  has 
this  information  : 

Compliments —  .  .  .  We  established  order  in  Kordofan  ; 
we  punished  the  backsliders  at  Jebel  Khadir  ;  we  destroyed 
Jusuf  Pasha  with  his  army  of  8,000  men,  and  slaughtered  Ala-ed- 
Deen  Pasha,  and  his  army  of  36,000  men,  which  was  altogether 
destroyed  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  It  was  a  fearful  fight,  in 
which  you  heard  only  the  slashing  of  swords  into  the  bodies. 
.  .  .  Know,  my  friend,  that  the  world  is  turned  upside  down 
.    .    .    be  on  your  guard  against  the  covetousness  of  the  world. 

In  1886,  the  Cairo  correspondent  of  the  London  Daily 
News  discovered  among  the  Egyptian  police  a  man  who 
says  that  he  fought  in  the  battle  in  which  Hicks  Pasha  and 
his  army  were  destroyed,  and  related  a  tale  which  the  corre- 


EL    OBEID.  463 

spondent  believed  to  be  true.  This  man  said  that  Hicks 
Pasha  was  misled,  he  believes  purposely,  into  some  brush- 
wood while  in  search  of  water,  and  that  while  there  he 
heard  firing  in  the  direction  of  half  his  army,  which  he 
liad  placed  under  the  command  of  Ala-ed-Deen  Pasha. 
Scouts  reporting  that  the  Arabs  were  attacking,  Hicks 
Pasha  closed  up  the  square  in  which  his  troops  had  been 
marching,  with  the  cavalry  and  camels  in  the  centre,  and 
the  guns  placed  at  proper  intervals  around.  While  the 
brushwood  in  front  of  the  square  was  being  cut  the  enemy 
appeared. 

They  had  no  rifles,  nor  were  shots  fired  at  us,  except  from 
a  gun.  They  fired  shell  at  us  from  this,  but  these  fell  without 
exploding.  They  had  now  increased  rapidly  in  numbers — 
some  on  foot,  others  on  horse — and  poured  forth  from  among 
the  bush  and  over  two  low  mounds.  The  horses  were  on  their 
right,  the  foot  scattered  all  over  to  our  right  and  front.  The 
mitrailleuse  now  commenced  upon  them  so  heavily  that  they 
were  unable  to  advance.  We  also  kept  up  a  tremendous  fusil- 
lade with  our  rifles.  Being  unable  to  get  at  us,  they  wheeled 
to  their  left  and  streamed  down  upon  our  right  flank.  They 
dashed  upon  the  right  angle  and  right  centre  ;  but  the  Krupp 
and  mitrailleuse  there  made  great  havoc  with  them,  upon  which 
they  wheeled  round  again  and  made  straight  at  the  right  angle 
of  the  rear  face,  where  there  was  only  a  muzzle-loader.  Here 
they  broke  into  the  square  ;  the  right,  left,  and  front  faces 
then  turned  inwards  and  commenced  pouring  in  a  heavy  fire 
upon  them.  They  got  in  among  the  camels.  The  smoke  and 
dust  were  now  so  thick  I  could  not  see  what  was  going  on  ; 
but  it  seemed  to  me  that  fighting  was  going  on  for  an  hour. 
When  all  the  ammunition  was  spent  the  men  used  their  bayo- 
nets. I  forgot  to  mention  that  on  sight  of  the  enemy  Hicks 
Pasha  ordered  his  English  officers  to  draw  their  swords  and 
have  their  revolvers  ready.  A  hand-to-hand  fight  continued 
for  an  immense  time.  Seeing  all  was  up,  Hicks  Pasha  gathered 
hib  English  officers  around  and  other  mounted  men.  They 
fought  to  the  last  with  desperation,  bringing  down  many. 


464  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

Closely  examined,  the  speaker  explained  that  Hicks 
Pasha  was  at  the  commencement  on  a  red  horse,  but 
when  all  his  men  were  falling  he  changed  and  got  on  a 
white  horse,  because  his  first  horse  was  tired.  Hicks 
Pasha  and  his  six  officers  fought  for  half  an  hour  alone  ; 
the  battle  lasted  two  hours  and  a  half.  The  soldier  who 
tells  this  story  says  that  he  escaped  death,  along  with 
about  150  others,  by  declaring  himself  a  Mussulman,  and 
he  was  afterwards  told  by  one  of  the  Arabs  :  "  Hicks  Pasha 
was  a  terrible  man  ;  he  killed  a  great  many  of  us,  and  so 
did  the  other  English  officers."  Other  men  talked  with 
wonder  of  how  this  little  English  band  kept  them  at  bay. 
Two  Englishmen  who  did  not  wear  uniforms  were  among 
the  killed.  "  One  sketched,  was  a  stout  man,  eagle-like 
nose,  elderly,  and  gray  hair.  The  other  was  a  spare,  tall 
man,  with  dark-brown  hair,  and  narrow  thin  face  " — evi- 
dently Vizetelly  and  O'Donovan.  The  correspondent's 
informant  went  on  to  say  that,  escaping  to  Khartoum,  he 
became  an  orderly  to  General  Gordon,  that  being  sent 
down  to  meet  the  relieving  force  at  Metemneh,  he  accom- 
panied Sir  Charles  Wilson  to  near  Khartoum,  that  after- 
wards he  marched  to  Korti,  and  was  sent  thence  to  Cairo 
with  four  or  five  other  soldiers  who  had  come  from 
Khartoum. 

The  destruction  of  Hicks  Pasha's  army  gave  the  Mahdi 
control  of  all  the  country  south  of  the  junction  of  the 
Blue  and  White  Niles,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  unim- 
portant posts  whose  garrisons  held  out.  In  1884  he 
extended  his  power  to  the  Red  Sea,  waged  war  with  the 
British  in  and  around  Suakim,  blockaded  General  Gordon 
at  Khartoum,  rejecting  the  title  of  "  Sultan  of  Kordofan  " 
which  Gordon  offered  him,  and  compelled  England  to 
send  an  army  under  Lord  Wolseley  to  Khartoum  for  the 
relief  of  Gordon. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 

FALL    OF    KHARTOUM — I  885. 

It  has  been  stated  elsewhere  that  Mohammed  Ah' 
Pasha  began  the  conquest  of  the  Soudan  in  order  to  in- 
crease the  possessions  of  Egypt.  In  1822  he  sent  his  son, 
Ismail  Pasha,  to  Shendy,  then  the  capital  of  the  Soudan 
country-,  to  demand  the  submission  of  Mek  Nemr,  the 
king  of  Ethiopia,  who  was  surnamed  "  The  Leopard,"  on 
account  of  his  ferocity.  Ismail  Pasha  made  his  camp  out- 
side the  walls  of  Shendy,  and  sent  for  the  king  to  come 
and  see  him.  The  king  came,  and  the  visitor  demanded 
hay  for  his  horses  and  camels  and  food  for  his  troops. 

The  king  said  it  was  impossible  to  meet  the  demand,  as 
his  people  were  poor  and  the  season  had  been  very  bad. 
The  Egyptian  became  furiously  angry,  and  struck  the  king 
over  the  head  with  the  stem  of  his  chibouk.  The  king 
bowed  his  head  as  if  in  submission,  and  said  the  Egyp- 
tians should  have  all  they  had  asked  for,  and  more  besides. 

All  night  long  his  people  were  busy  piling  hay  around 
the  Egyptian  camp,  the  largest  piles  being  in  front  of  the 
pasha's  tent  and  the  tents  of  his  oflFicers.  Suddenly,  at 
daybreak,  the  whole  circle  of  hay  was  in  a  blaze,  having 
been  fired  by  orders  of  the  king.  As  the  Egyptians  en- 
deavored to  save  themselves,  they  were  speared  by  the 
Ethiopian  warriors,  and  not  one  of  Ismail  Pasha's  expe- 
ditionary force  escaped. 

When  Mohammed  AH  heard  of  the  occurrence,  he  sent 
an  army  to  destroy  Shendy,  not  leaving  one   stone  upon 

465 


466  DECISIVE  BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

another.  The  "  Leopard  "  fled  at  the  approach  of  the 
avengers  and  was  not  captured,  but  the  town  was  razed 
to  the  ground.  Mohammed  AH  ordered  the  estabHsh- 
ment  of  a  town  at  the  junction  of  the  Blue  and  White 
Niles,  which  should  be  the  capital  of  the  Soudan  country 
in  place  of  Shendy.  His  orders  were  carried  out,  the  new 
town  (Khartoum)  gained  rapidly  in  importance,  and  from 
an  insignificant  village  of  a  few  dozens  of  people  it  became 
a  commercial  centre,  with  a  population  of  more  than 
20,000  in  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  century'.  Its  later  his- 
tory, as  well  as  that  of  its  origin,  has  been  written  in  blood. 

Immediately  after  the  destruction  of  Hicks  Pasha's 
army,  the  Mahdi's  forces  advanced  upon  Khartoum,  and 
laid  siege  to  it.  Khartoum  is  on  the  tongue  of  land  be- 
tween the  Blue  and  White  Niles;  it  fronts  upon  the  Blue 
Nile,  where  there  are  several  stone  enbankments  which 
form  landing-places  for  the  steamers,  at  the  edge  of  a  low 
bluff.  Towards  the  south  there  is  a  mud  wall,  which  sepa- 
rates the  city  from  the  plain,  and  there  is  a  similar  wall 
on  the  eastern  side.  Against  modern  artillery  the  walls 
of  Khartoum  could  offer  little  resistance,  but  they  are  an 
important  defence  against  the  small-arms  of  the  Arabs. 
The  Mahdi's  forces  were  held  at  bay  by  the  walls,  though 
they  vastly  exceeded  in  numbers  the  garrison  within. 
They  had  a  few  small  cannon,  captured  from  the  Egyptians, 
but  they  were  short  of  ammunition,  and  even  with  an 
abundance  of  it  they  did  not  have  the  necessary  skill  for 
its  proper  utilization.  They  contented  themselves  with 
firing  occasional  shots  at  the  town  ;  but  what  was  more 
serious,  they  cut  off  the  supplies  of  provisions,  so  that  the 
garrison  and  inhabitants  were  on  very  short  rations. 

The  Egyptian  government  had  appealed  to  England 
for  assistance  in  re-conquering  the  Soudan,  but  that  coun- 
try refused  its  aid,  though  it  had  been  ready  enough  to 
bombard  Alexandria  and  suppress  Arabi  Pasha's  revolt, 
which  was  almost   identical   with  the   Mahdi's  rebellion. 


^68  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

Lord  Granville  stated  in  Parliament  that  "  the  government 
was  in  no  way  responsible  for  the  operations  wliich  had 
been  undertaken  on  the  authority  of  the  Egyptian  gov- 
ernment, or  for  the  appointment  of  General  Hicks." 
When  the  news  of  the  annihilation  of  Hicks  Pasha's  army 
reached  England  there  was  great  excitement,  and  the  gov- 
ernment felt  called  upon  to  do  something  to  extricate  the 
garrisons  of  Khartoum,  Kassala,  Berber,  and  other  places 
that  were  besieged  by  the  Mahdi's  forces,  as  his  fanatical 
followers  would  not  be  likely  to  spare  any  lives  in  case  of 
success,  and,  least  of  all,  the  lives  of  any  foreigners  in  the 
Egyptian  service.  In  its  emergency  the  government  ap- 
pealed to  General  Charles  G.  Gordon,  better  known  as 
"Chinese  "  Gordon,  to  aid  in  the  solution  of  the  difificult 
problem. 

Gordon  had  been  living  in  the  Holy  Land  for  several 
months,  and  had  just  been  invited  by  the  king  of  the 
Belgians  to  go  to  the  Congo  and  assume  command  of  the 
Congo  Free  State,  which  Stanley  had  organized.  He 
reached  Brussels  on  New  Year's  day,  1884,  completed  his 
arrangements  with  King  Leopold,  and  then  started  for 
the  Congo.  On  the  i6th  January,  while  on  his  way,  a 
telegram  from  London  called  him  to  start  at  once  for 
Khartoum,  to  settle  the  affairs  there.  He  reached  Lon- 
don on  the  morning  of  the  i8th,  and  left  on  the  evening 
of  the  same  day  for  Egypt. 

The  Soudan  was  familiar  ground  to  General  Gordon,  as 
he  had  been  its  governor-general  from  1877  to  1880.  in 
the  service  of  Ismail,  Khedive  of  Egypt.  From  1874  to 
1877  he  was  Governor-General  of  the  Equator,  so  that  he 
passed  altogether  six  years  in  the  regions  of  the  Upper 
Nile.  During  the  period  of  his  administration,  he  did  much 
to  improve  the  condition  of  the  people,  and  their  regard 
for  him  was  so  great,  that  the  British  government  had 
good  reason  to  believe  that  he  could  make  terms  with  the 
Mahdi,    and   secure   the  safe  retreat   of  the  garrisons   of 


FALL    OF  KLLARTOUM.  469 

Khartoum  and  other  points.  Accordingly  he  was  sent  to 
Khartoum  to  arrange  for  the  evacuation  of  the  Soudan. 
During  the  voyage  from  Brindisi  to  Port  Said,  he  prepared 
a  report,  in  which  he  carefully  reviewed  his  instructions, 
and  called  attention  to  some  of  the  difficulties  and  com- 
plications which  would  probably  arise  in  carrying  out  the 
policy  of  the  British  government.  He  asked  for  the  support 
and  consideration  of  the  Foreign  Office,  in  the  event  that 
he  should  be  unable  to  fulfil  their  expectations  in  every 
respect.  Colonel  Stewart  wrote  at  the  same  time,  and 
suggested  that  the  wisest  course  would  be  to  rely  on 
General  Gordon's  discretion  and  his  knowledge  of  the 
country  and  people. 

General  Gordon  reached  Khartoum  on  February  i8th 
to  carry  out  the  instructions  of  the  British  government  for 
the  safe  evacuation  of  the  country.  But  it  occurred  to 
him  to  make  provision  for  the  government  of  the  country 
after  the  retirement  of  the  Egyptian  troops,  as  he  foresaw 
anarchy  and  general  ruin  in  case  the  country  went  into  the 
control  of  the  Mahdi  and  his  fanatics.  His  plan  was  to 
restore  the  rule  of  the  petty  sultans  who  were  in  power  at 
the  time  of  Mohammed  Ali's  conquest,  and  whose  families 
still  existed,  and  in  places  where  there  were  no  ruling 
families,  he  proposed  that  the  people  should  choose  their 
own  sultans.  It  was  hardly  to  be  expected  that  the  Mahdi 
would  approve  this  plan  and,  therefore  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  defeat  him.  His  defeat  would  require  a  larger 
expeditionary  force  than  England  was  prepared  to  send, 
and  consequently  the  government  declined  the  scheme. 

General  Gordon  roused  the  antagonism  of  the  anti- 
slavery  party  in  England  by  issuing  a  proclamation,  in 
which  he  promised  non-interference  with  the  slave-trade, 
after  he  had  done  every  thing  in  his  power,  during  his 
six  years  of  authority,  for  its  suppression.  Zubair  Pasha, 
the  king  of  the  slave-traders  in  that  region,  had  been  sent 
to  reside  in  Cairo,  and  forbidden  to  return  to  the  Soudan ; 


470  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

Gordon  asked  the  Khedive  to  send  this  man  to  him,  with 
the  next  position  in  rank,  and  explained  that  Zubair  had 
vast  influence  over  the  people  of  the  Soudan,  and  could  do 
more  than  any  other  man  to  bring  about  the  desired  result. 
The  Khedive  refused  to  do  as  Gordon  wished  in  this  matter, 
and  Zubair  remained  in  Cairo.  Gordon  was  greatly  dis- 
appointed at  the  Khedive's  refusal,  and  also  at  that  of 
the  British  government  to  send  the  necessary  forces  to 
crush  the  Mahdi. 

Things  went  wrong  elsewhere  in  the  Soudan.  Colonel 
Valentine  Baker,  who,  under  the  title  of  Baker  Pasha,  had 
been  sent  with  a  Turkish  force  to  Tokar,  was  severely 
defeated  on  February  4th  ;  and  a  week  or  two  later  the 
garrison  of  Sinkat  was  slaughtered  almost  to  a  man,  while 
trying  to  cut  its  way  through  the  lines  of  Osman  Digma, 
the  Mahdi's  commander  in  the  region  bordering  the  Red 
Sea.  Another  small  force,  under  command  of  Colonel 
Stewart,  had  been  massacred,  and,  altogether,  the  whole 
sky  was  gloomy.  Naturally,  General  Gordon  grew  im- 
patient and  despondent,  as  is  very  evident  from  his  diary. 
He  avowed  his  intention  not  to  leave  the  country  until 
order  was  restored,  and  he  deprecated  the  coming  of  an 
English  expedition,  except  for  the  purpose  of  saving  all  the 
garrisons  and  establishing  some  form  of  government. 

When  it  was  fully  realized  in  England  that  Gordon  was 
in  danger,  there  was  a  great  clamor  for  his  relief.  It  grew 
day  by  day,  and  finally  became  so  loud  that  the  government 
was  forced  to  act.  On  the  5th  August  an  appropriation 
of  ^^"300,000  was  made  for  his  relief,  and  Lord  Wolseley 
was  appointed  to  command  the  expedition.  Messengers 
were  immediately  sent  out  to  inform  Gordon  that  help 
was  near,  but  unfortunately  these  messengers  were  unable 
to  reach  him,  and  hence  came  his  belief  that  he  had  been 
altogether  abandoned  by  his  country. 

It  was  resolved  to  use  the  railway  around  some  of  the 
cataracts  of  the  Nile,  and  for  this  purpose  material  was 


FALL    OF  KHARTOUM.  47 1 

sent  out.  A  portion  of  the  proposed  line  had  been 
made  several  years  before  by  the  Egyptian  govern- 
ment, in  its  endeavors  to  improve  communication  with 
the  Soudan,  but  had  never  received  its  equipment.  The 
advance  was  to  be  along  the  Nile  valley,  and  400  boats  of 
light  draft  were  ordered  for  the  expedition.  Preparations 
were  pushed  for  the  departure  of  troops  from  London, 
and  orders  were  sent  for  troops  from  India  to  go  to  Egypt. 
The  expedition  included  8,000  British  troops,  2,500  Egyp- 
tians, and  a  flotilla  of  over  900  boats.  A  contingent  of 
600  Canadian  boatmen  was  enlisted  by  the  Marquis  of 
Lansdowne,  Governor-General  of  the  Dominion  of  Can- 
ada, and  sent  to  Egypt  as  speedily  as  possible. 

On  the  loth  September  Lord  Wolseley  arrived  at  Cairo, 
1,500  miles  from  Khartoum.  He  ordered  the  relieving 
army  to  ascend  the  Nile  by  steamers  to  Wady-Halfa ; 
the  1st  battalion  of  the  Sussex  regiment  arrived  there 
November  2d,  and  then  the  actual  advance  on  Khartoum 
may  be  said  to  have  begun.  There  were  some  delays  on 
the  way  connected  with  the  dif^culties  of  the  transport 
department,  and  the  movement  to  Ambukol,  and  thence 
to  Korti,  was  slow.  From  Korti  General  Wolseley  de- 
termined to  march  by  two  roads.  One  column  under 
General  Earle  was  to  follow  the  river,  while  the  other, 
under  General  Herbert  Stewart,  would  go  straight  across 
the  Bayuda  Desert,  178  miles,  and  reach  the  Nile  again  at 
Metemneh.  Scattered  on  the  desert  were  several  oases 
where  water  could  be  obtained ;  the  most  difificult  part  of 
the  route  was  from  the  Gadkul  Wells  to  the  Abu  Klea 
Wells,  a  distance  of  45  miles,  where  no  water  could  be 
procured,  and  therefore  it  was  necessary  to  carry  a  supply 
for  horses  and  men. 

General  Stewart,  with  his  detachment  of  1,150  men,  350 
Guards  and  marines,  300  native  soldiers,  and  2,000  camels, 
began  his  march  at  3  P.M.  on  Tuesday,  Dec.  30th,  and 
reached  the  Gadkul  Wells,  97  miles  from  his  starting-point, 


4/2  DECISIVE   BATTLES   SINCE   WATERLOO. 

ill  65  hours,  during  which  time  the  camels  were  not  once 
watered.  Owing  to  the  terrific  heat  of  the  daytime  the 
marching  was  done  at  night.  As  the  column  approached 
Abu  Nafki,  after  the  first  stage  of  marching,  there  was 
some  excitement  among  the  troops,  owing  to  the  uncer- 
tainty of  their  whereabouts  and  the  anticipation  of 
hostility.  Finding  a  very  scanty  supply  of  water  at  the 
Hasheen  Wells,  the  advance  continued  after  a  brief  halt. 
On  Thursday,  the  second  night's  march,  being  New  Year's 
day,  the  troops  gave  a  ringing  cheer,  which  drew  another 
cheer,  and  following  it  was  the  cry  of  "Wells  ahead!" 
At  eight  o'clock  the  men  again  mounted  their  camels  and 
continued  their  march  to  the  Gadkul  Wells,  capturing  on 
their  way  a  quantity  of  spoil,  and  making  prisoners  of  all 
the  natives  they  found.  Friday  morning  at  seven  o'clock 
they  reached  Gadkul  Wells  and  found  that  all  the  natives 
had  disappeared.  The  Arabs  had  been  there  a  few  days 
before,  but  left  hastily  on  learning  of  the  advance  of  the 
British. 

It  was  now  considered  wise  to  strengthen  the  number 
of  fighting  men,  as  it  was  positively  ascertained  that  the 
Mahdi's  force  in  front  of  them  was  from  8,000  to  10,000 
strong.  To  ensure  the  greatest  despatch,  General  Stewart 
■  went  back  to  Korti,  and  in  a  few  days  had  about  2,000 
fighting  men  under  his  command.  There  was  now  a  long 
march  of  45  miles  across  the  waterless  desert  to  the  Abu 
Klea  Wells,  and  on  Friday,  Jan.  i6th,  the  head  of  the  col- 
umn was  within  a  few  miles  of  the  wells.  The  exhausted 
troops  were  hoping  for  a  halt  and  rest  at  the  wells,  after 
which  they  would  have  only  two  short  marches  to 
Metemneh. 

Suddenly  the  Hussars,  who  were  scouting  ahead, 
brought  the  news  that  the  enemy  were  in  possession  of 
the  Wells.  The  whole  column  was  immediately  formed 
in  close  fighting  order,  the  Guards  camel  corps  on  the 
left,  the  heavy  division  in  the  centre,  and  the   mounted 


FALL   OF  KHARTOUM.  473 

infantry  on  the  right.  Thus  arrayed  the  column  ad- 
vanced until  within  three  miles  of  the  Wells.  As  the 
Arabs  gave  no  indication  of  advancing  or  retiring,  the 
troops  were  halted,  and  immediately  went  to  work  to 
make  a  zareba,  or  entrenchment,  which  should  protect 
them  in  case  of  a  night  attack,  and  serve  as  a  stronghold, 
where  the  camels  and  baggage  would  be  left  under  guard, 
when  the  main  body  advanced  to  battle  in  the  morning. 
An  abattis  was  formed  around  the  camels  and  baggage, 
and  a  breastwork  of  stone  and  earth  was  thrown  up  some 
hundreds  of  yards  in  front,  sufficient  to  check  the  first 
rush  of  the  Arabs.  The  enemy's  camp  could  be  plainly 
seen  about  four  miles  away  ;  it  contained  several  tents, 
and  appeared  to  be  fortified.  While  the  English  were 
entrenching  they  were  watched  by  mounted  Arabs,  who 
were  stationed  on  some  high  hills  on  the  left  front. 

About  six  o'clock  in  the  evening  the  enemy  fired  from 
a  distance  ;  but  immediately  retired  when  the  artillery  re- 
plied with  a  few  rounds  from  the  light  guns.  During  the 
night  a  few  shots  were  fired  into  the  camp,  killing  nobody 
and  wounding  one  man  slightly.  On  Saturday,  Januar}-- 
17th,  the  Arabs  advanced  in  two  divisions  ;  each  division 
numbered  about  5,000  men,  who  had  been  gathered 
from  Berber,  Metemneh,  and  Omdurman.  They  moved 
forward,  with  drums  beating  and  flags  flying,  halting  oc- 
casionally to  see  what  the  English  troops  were  going  to 
do.  General  Stewart  remained  for  a  while  in  the  position 
he  had  entrenched,  hoping  to  induce  the  enemy  to  attack 
him  there  ;  but  finding  that  they  would  not  attack,  he 
formed  his  line  of  battle,  and  advanced  to  meet  the  Arabs. 
The  British  troops  were  dismounted,  the  camels  being 
left  in  the  inclosure  under  guard  of  a  portion  of  the  Sus- 
sex regiment  and  some  mounted  infantry. 

The  English  advanced  in  square,  with  the  mounted  in- 
fantry, the  artillery,  and  a  portion  of  the  Guards  in  the 
front  line.     Another  detachment  of  Guards  and   a  part 


474  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

of  the  Sussex  regiment  formed  the  right  flank,  and  a 
portion  of  the  heavy  cavalry  and  some  mounted  infantry 
were  on  the  left.  The  naval  brigade  and  the  rest  of  the 
heavy  corps  formed  the  rear,  while  the  Gardner  machine- 
guns  were  in  the  centre,  so  that  they  could  be  used  in  any 
direction.  The  fighting  force  thus  formed  in  square  in- 
cluded about  1,500  men.  As  the  British  advanced,  the 
Arabs  manoeuvred  until  the  British  had  reached  a  position 
which  the  enemy  deemed  favorable  for  their  attack. 
Then,  leaving  their  standards  waving  to  mask  their 
movements,  they  disappeared  from  view,  and,  advancing 
under  cover  of  some  depressions  of  the  ground,  suddenly 
charged  upon  the  square. 

The  destructive  fire  poured  in  by  the  front  line  checked 
the  Arabs,  but  did  not  drive  them  back ;  sweeping  round, 
they  assaulted  the  rear  of  the  square,  where  the  heavy 
cavalry  were  in  position.  For  a  moment  the  English 
could  not  withstand  the  furious  attack.  Their  formation 
was  broken  and  the  Arabs  began  to  pour  into  the  interior 
of  the  square.  But  the  heavy  cavalry  rallied  quickly, 
and  then  followed  a  desperate  hand-to-hand  fight.  The 
troops  on  the  other  faces  maintained  their  formation,  and 
poured  a  tremendous  fire  upon  the  masses  of  the  Arabs, 
which  prevented  the  latter  from  following  up  the  advan- 
tage they  had  gained.  The  Guards,  the  mounted  infan- 
try, and  the  naval  brigade  concentrated  their  fire  on  the 
Arabs,  covering  the  ground  with  dead  and  wounded,  and 
driving  away  the  survivers,  so  that  the  square  again 
closed  up. 

By  this  time  the  enemy  were  fully  defeated,  and  were 
soon  in  full  retreat.  The  wells  were  now  open  to  the 
troops,  who  immediately  advanced  and  took  possession. 
The  loss  of  the  English  were  :  9  officers  and  65  men  killed, 
and  9  officers  and  85  wounded.  The  enemy  left  800  dead 
around  the  square,  and  prisoners  reported  the  number  of 
their  wounded  to  be  very  large. 


FALL    OF  KHARTOUM.  475 

General  Stewart  established  a  strong  post  at  Abu  Klea 
Wells  and  left  there  about  4  P.M.  the  next  day  (Jan. 
1 8th).  Avoiding  the  wells  at  Shebacut,  he  moved  to 
the  right,  to  establish  himself  on  the  Nile  between  Me- 
temneh  and  Khartoum.  About  7  A.M.  Jan.  19th,  when 
the  British  were  3  or  4  miles  from  the  river,  the  Arabs 
again  appeared  in  force.  A  halt  was  made  for  breakfast, 
and  a  strong  zareba  was  constructed.  During  the  fight 
at  this  point  General  Stewart  was  mortally  hit  by  a  bullet, 
and  a  heavy  fire  was  encountered.  Colonel  Sir  Charles 
Wilson,  as  senior  ofificer,  assumed  the  command.  The 
force,  leaving  wounded  and  impedimenta  in  the  zareba, 
marched  about  3  P.M.  to  the  gravel  ridge  which  overlooks 
the  Nile,  where  a  large  force  of  the  enemy  waited  to  meet 
them.  Led  by  several  emirs  on  horseback  the  Arabs 
charged,  but  none  were  able  to  get  nearer  than  within 
about  30  yards  of  the  square.  They  were  repulsed  with 
severe  loss,  5  emirs  and  about  250  other  dead  being  left 
on  the  ground. 

The  British  reached  the  Nile  at  Gubat,  2  miles  above 
Metemneh  and  98  miles  below  Khartoum.  They  fortified 
the  camp  and  prepared  to  rest  and  wait  for  General  Earle's 
column,  which  was  advancing  by  the  river  route.  Three 
steamers  with  500  soldiers  and  a  message  from  General 
Gordon  came  down  the  river  from  Khartoum.  On  the 
24th  January  Sir  Charles  Wilson,  with  two  steamers  carry- 
ing 20  English  soldiers  and  320  Soudanese  (some  of  those 
who  came  down  from  General  Gordon),  started  for  Khar- 
toum. 

All  the  way  up  the  river  the  boats  were  fired  upon  from 
both  banks.  On  nearing  Khartoum,  General  Wilson  found 
that  every  point  was  in  possession  of  the  enemy,  and  when 
the  steamers  approached  within  800  yards  of  the  town  a 
dozen  cannon  opened  upon  them,  followed  by  a  thousand 
or  more  rifles  in  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  who  everywhere 
covered  the  walls.     It  was   evident   that    Khartoum   had 


476  DECISIVE  BATTLES  SINCE  WATERLOO. 

fallen,  and  as  it  was  impossible  to  land  in  face  of  the  ar- 
tillery and  small-arms  in  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  General 
Wilson  reluctantly  gave  the  order  to  return  to  Gubat.  On 
the  way  down  the  river  both  the  steamers  were  wrecked 
through  the  treachery  of  the  pilots,  but  the  men  escaped. 

The  relief  expedition  reached  Khartoum  two  days  too 
late.  The  city  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Mahdi, 
and  General  Gordon  was  dead.  Many  stories  have  been 
told  concerning  the  capture  of  Khartoum,  but  the  full  de- 
tails are  not  and  probably  never  will  be  known.  The 
stories  are  contradictory  of  each  other,  but  they  generally 
concur  in  the  assertion  that  the  surrender  was  due  to 
treachery. 

An  Arab  servant  of  General  Gordon  stated  that  Khar- 
toum was  delivered  to  the  rebels  by  Faragh  Pasha,  the 
commander  of  Gordon's  Soudanese  troops,  who  early  on 
January  27th  treacherously  opened  the  gate  in  the  southern 
wall.  By  previous  arrangement  the  Mahdi's  fighting  men 
were  waiting  outside,  and  immediately  rushed  into  the 
city.  General  Gordon,  hearing  the  noise,  went  out  armed 
with  a  sword  and  an  axe,  and  accompanied  by  Ibrahim 
Bey,  the  chief  clerk,  and  20  men.  On  his  way  to  the  pal- 
ace he  met  a  party  of  the  Mahdi's  men,  who  fired  a  volley 
that  killed  General  Gordon.  The  Arabs  then  rushed  on 
with  their  spears  and  killed  the  chief  clerk  and  9  of  the 
men  ;  the  rest  escaped.  The  greater  number  of  the  inhabi- 
tants fraternized  with  the  Mahdi's  men,  and  there  was 
no  fighting  elsewhere  in  the  city.  No  women  or  children 
were  killed,  and  all  who  surrendered  and  gave  up  their 
valuables  were  allowed  to  leave  without  further  molesta- 
tion. The  Mahdi's  troops  were  too  much  engaged  with 
the  looting  of  the  town  to  think  of  moving  against  Gubat. 
The  Mahdi  did  not  enter  Khartoum  until  three  days  after 
its  capture,  and  then  only  made  a  brief  stay. 

Another  story  is  that  Gordon  was  not  shot,  but  was 
killed  with  swords  and  spears,   the   soldiers   having   con- 


FALL    OF  KHARTOUM.  477 

suited  among  themselves  whether  to  take  him  alive  or  not. 
They  decided  to  kill  him,  because,  as  they  said,  if  they 
took  him  alive  to  the  Mahdi  he  would  be  spared,  and,  as 
he  was  the  cause  of  all  the  trouble,  he  ought  to  be  killed. 
There  is  another  story,  that  the  Mahdi  allowed  Gordon  to 
escape  to  the  southward,  and  on  more  than  one  occasion 
it  has  been  asserted  that  this  remarkable  soldier  of  fortune 
is  yet  living  in  the  equatorial  region  of  Central  Africa,  but 
so  closely  watched  that  he  cannot  communicate  with  the 
outer  world. 

After  the  fall  of  Khartoum  and  the  death  of  Gordon,  the 
English  made  no  attempt  to  advance  farther  up  the  Nile. 
The  troops  were  slowly  withdrawn,  the  construction  of  the 
Suakim-Berber  railway  was  suspended,  and  the  British  for- 
ces in  Egypt  contented  themselves  with  retaining  posses- 
sion of  such  portions  of  the  country  as  were  not  embraced 
in  the  conquests  of  Mohammed  Ali  and  his  successors. 
By  the  fall  of  Khartoum,  the  Soudan  was  restored  to  its 
former  independence  and  relieved  from  the  misrule  and 
oppression  of  the  pashas.  The  dominion  of  Egypt  has 
been  driven  from  the  region  of  the  equatorial  lakes  to 
that  of  the  lower  Nile,  and  the  time  is  probably  far  distant 
when  it  will  be  restored. 


INDEX. 


Abba  Island  (Nile),  454 
Abbas  Pasha,  454 
Abu  Dynma,  457 
Abu  Klea  Wells,  471 
Abu   Nafki,  472 
Abu-Zea,  459 

Ackerman,  Convention  of,  48 
Acqua  Fredda,  202 
Adam  Kurulgan,  373 
Adramyti,  37 
Adrianople,  62 
Afghanistan,  1 18 
Ahirwan,  160 
Aibugir  Lake,  369 
Aidos  Pass,  61 
Airy,  Sir  Richard,  146 
Akhal  oasis,  the,  424 
Akhal  Tekkes,  the,  429 
Akhaltiskh,  62 
Akhtiar  (Tartary),  133 
Alaman,   an,  417 
Alameda,  the,  115 
Alamo  fort,  98 
Aldic,   234 

Alexander  I.  (Russia),  31 
Alexandria,  450,  466 
Alfonso  Ugarte  Fort,  448 
Algiers,  siege  of,  73,  74  ;  assault  and 
capture,  74  ;  terms  of  capitulation, 

74 
Aliwal,  122 
Allahabad,  159 
Alma,  battle  of  the,  133 
Alompra  dynasty,  the,  28 
Alouba,  461 
Altai  Mountains,  415 
Alty-Kuduk,   374 
Amanvillers,   332 
Ambukol,  471 
Amelia  C.-H.,  300 
Amherst,  Lord,  19 


Amou  Darya,  423 

Amoy,  89 

Ananta,  12 

Andaman  Islands,  19 

Anting  Gate  (Pekin),  194 

Antofagasta,  Company,  432  ;  port, 
432,  435 

Antwerp,  description  of  fortress,  80, 
81  ;  siege,  82  ;  surrender  of  citadel, 
84  ;  convention  signed,  87  ;  rati- 
fied, 87  ;  terms  of  capitulation,  84 

Aong,   160 

Arabi  Pasha,  455,  466 

Aral  Sea,  376,  415 

Ardennes,  the,  345 

Arequipa  Fort  (S.  Am.),  15 

Argos,  37 

Arica  port,  436,  440 

Arkansas,  Post,  267  ;   River,  268 

Arracan,  18,  24 

Arracourt,  329 

Ars-sur-Moselles,  333 

Arystan-Bel-Kuduk  Well,  372 

Aspinwall,  2S9 

Assam,  10,  26 

Atacama,  431 

Atbara  River,  450 

Ate,  445 

Atlanta,  291 

Atlas  Mountains,  70 

Atrek  River,  423 

Ava,  26 

Ayacucho,  battle-field,  10  ;  army,  I2  ; 
capitulation  of  Royalists  at,  14  ; 
terms,  14 

Azoteas,  the,  99 


B 


Baggara  Arabs,  455 
Baker  Pasha  (Valentine),  470 
Bakum  Kothi,  172 
Balaklava,    136 


479 


48o 


INDEX. 


Balan,  Port  de,  350,  359,  362 

Balkans,  the,  389 

Baltimore,  236  ;  turnpike,  252 

Bami,  422 

Bara,  456 

Baraba  Steppe,  415 

Barrackpore,    155 

Bashi-Bazouks,  383  ;  their  recruit- 
ment, 386  ;  their  occupation,  386  ; 
in   the  Soudan,  458 

Bassein,  27 

Batoum,   414 

Battilly,  337 

Bau  St.  Martin,  332 

Bayon,  329 

Bayou,  Pierre  River,  274 

Bayunda  Desert,  471 

Bazardjik,  54 

Bazeilles,  345 

Beas  River,  155 

Beaufort,  N.  C,  226 

Beaumont,  346 

Belgium,  17 

Belmont,  Missouri,  261 

Benatek  (Bohemia),  313 

Bengal,  19 

Benner's  Hill,  246 

Berair,  460 

Berber,  462,  468,  473,  477 

Bernecourt,  329 

Bexar,  San  Antonio  de  (Texas),  92 

Biela,  3S9 

Big  Black  River  valley,  274 

Biled-es-Soudan,  450 

Bistritz  River,  313 

Bitheer,  160 

Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  231  ;  at  Ches- 
ter Gap, 234 

Bois  de  la  Casse,  334  ;  Bois  de  Ga- 
renne,  334,  358  ;  Bois  des  Ognons, 
328  ;  Bois  des  Perivaux,  334  ;  Bois 
de  Pouru,  356  ;  Bois  des  Vaux,  334 

Bokhara,  381,  416 

Bolivia,  431 

Bourgas,  62 

Bozzaris,  Marco,  37 

Brailov  (Turk),  49 

Brandy  Station,  233 

Brindisi,  469 

Brinkerhoff's  Ridge,  253 

Bruce,  Sir  Richard,  190 

Bruinsburg,  275,  287 

Brussels,  468 

Bucharest,  49,  387 

Bucktaih,  the,   240 

Buena  Vista,  114 


Bukali,  372 

Bukova,  390 

Bulgaria,  383,  412 

Bull  Run  Mountains,  234 

Burhampore,  155 

Burmah,  kingdom  of,  17  ;  climate, 
27  ;  the  soldiers,  26 ;  stockades, 
19,  20,  21,  22,  23  ;  its  annexation, 

27 
Byron,  Lord,  37 


Cairo,  260,  453,  454,  471 

Calama,  440 

Calcutta,  18 

Callao,  7,  9 

Canta,  448 

Canton  (China^,  89,  178  ;  (No.  Am.), 
278 

Capo  DTstria,  Count  of,  31,  46 

Caraccas,  2 

Caracoles,  432,  435 

Carignan,  356 

Carlisle,  235 

Carpendolo  (Ft.),  201,  204 

Carriano  (Ft.t,  201,  203 

Casa  Mata  (Mexico),  104 

Casa  Morino  (Ft.),  202 

Casanuova  (Ft.),  207 

Cashmere,  119 

Cashtown,  239  ' 

Cassel,  362 

Castiglione,  201 

Castile,  91 

Cathcart  Hill,  134 

Cavour,  197 

Cawnpore,  154  ;  assault  of,  173  ;  fiU 
of,  176 

Cedarville,  234 

Cemetery  Hill,  238 

Cemetery  Ridge,  238 

Ceresano,  202 

Cesekwitz,  312 

Ceylon,  456 

Chacabuco,  6 

Chalco,  98,  116 

Chalons,  342,  344 

Chambersburg,  235 

Champenois,  332 

Champion  Hill,  279 

Chancellorsville,  258 

Chapon,  417 

Chapultepec,  99  ;  description  of  cita- 
del, 109;  siege,  no;  storming  of, 
112  ;  capture,  113 


INDEX. 


48 1 


Charleroi,  81 

Charles  Albert,  197 

Charleston,  291 

Chattanooga,  264,  291 

Cheduba,   18 

"  Cheese-box  on  a  raft,"  the  Moni- 
tor, 222 

Chenab  River,  Ii8 

Chernavoda  Fort,  53 

Chicamauga,  291 

Chickasaw  Bayou,  266 

Chiese  River,  200 

Chilca,  443 

Chili,  431,  436,  437 

Chillianvvallah,  124 

Chinhut,  164 

Chios  (Scio),  37 

Chittagong,   17 

Chorillos,  444 

Churubusco,  99  ;  battle  of,  100 

Clinton,   277 

Cobija,  432 

Cochrane,  Lord,  7 

Coldwater  River,  269 

Coles,  Capt.  Cowper,  227 

Colombia,  3 

Columbus,  Ky.,  260 

Columbus  Heights,  261 

Condorcanqui,  12 

Conflans,  333 

Congo  River,  468 

Constantinople,  382 

Contreras,  99 

Corinth  (Gr.),  17;  (Am.),  278 

Cornwallis,  port  of,  19 

Cossacks,  the  Yaik  or  Ural,  366  ;  ir- 
reg.  troops,  their  organization,  etc., 
386 

Courcelles,  328 

Cox  Road,  292 

Cradoch,  Col.,  40 

Cress  Ridge,  257 

Culpepper,  231 

Culp's  Hill,  238 

Curayaco,  443 

Cushing,  Caleb,  227 

Custozza,  197 

Cuzco,  15 

Czernitz,  34 


D 


Daigny,  345,  356 
Danube  River,  49 
Danville,  300 
Darfur,  454 


Davis,  Jefferson,  289 
Delhi,   155 
Des  Arc,  268 
Des  Carrieres,  332 
Devil's  Den,  246 
Dilkusha  Park,  16S 
Dinwiddie  C.-H.,  292 
Djizzak.  372 
Dockyard  Creek,  139 
Dohalicha,  314 
Dohelnitz,  314 
Dombasle,  329 
Donchery,  348,  357 
Doncourt,  336 
Donelson,  261 
Donghil-Tepe,  428 
Dongola,  454,  471 
Donoobu,  23 
Douz-Aloum,  423 
Douzay,  354 
Dover,  236 
Dranesville,  23b 
Drewry's  Bluff,  226 
Dub,  314 
Duem,  459 
Duval's  Bluff,  268 
D  war  ah,  125 


Eads,  James  B.,  212 

East  India  Company,  165,  176 

Edwards  Station,  276 

Einville,  329 

Eleusis,  priests  of,  32 

Elgin,  Lord,  66 

El  Mahdi,  454,  468 

El  Obeid,  455 

El  Penon,  99 

Elyas,  455 

Emmeltsburg,  236 

Esenta,  201 

Eupatoria,  134 

Exmouth,  Lord,  66 


Fairfax  Court-House,  234 
Farmville,  301 
Fashoda,  454 
Fayettevillc,  236 
Fellaheen,  457 
Feragh  Pasha,  476 
Fitz-Roy,  Lieut.,  42,  44 
Five  Forks,  296 
Ferozepore,  121 


482 


INDEX. 


Fleetwood  Hill,  232 
Floing,  345,  357 
Forbach,  327 
Ford  Road,  298 
Fontana,  201 
Foochow,  89 
Francheval,  356 
Franklin's  Crossing,  232 
Fredericksburg,  231 
Frizzelburg,  238 
Fulton,  Robert,  211 
Futtyghyr,  159 

G 

Gadkul  Wells,  471 

Gaeta,  209 

Galatz,  49,  387 

Ganges  River,  165 

Geok  Tepe,  424  ;  how  situated,  424  ; 
the  Russian  positions,  423  ;  assault 
and  capture,  427 

Georgia,  291 

Gettysburg,  235  ;  its  neighborhood, 
238  ;  relative  position  of  armies, 
230  ;  battle  of,  244  ;  an  adverse 
result  considered,   256 

Gibson  Fort,  274 

Gitschin,  309 

Giudizzolo,  207 

Givonne,  345,  356  ;  Fonde  de,  359 

Gnachus,  the,  of  South  America,  386 

Gobi  Desert,  180 

Goffredo  Castel,  202 

Goito,  197 

Goliad,  92 

Gordon,  Gen.,  455  ;  "Chinese"  G., 
468  ;  his  mission,  468  ;  arrival  at 
Khartoum,  469  ;  fall  of  Khartoum 
and  Gordon's  death,  470 

Grand  Gulf,  274 

Gravelly  Church,  298 

Gravelotte,  328  ;  the  French  and 
Germans  compared,  327  ;  plan  of 
Prussian  movements,  328  ;  the 
French  positions  at  Metz,  331  ;  the 
German  order  of  battle,  333  ;  bat- 
tle, 337  ;  St.  Privat  carried  by  the 
Prussians,  341  ;  list  of  losses,  342      i 

Greece  and  the  Greeks,  29-46  ;  their  | 
oppression  by  the  Turks,  29  ;  flour-  ' 
ishing  state  of  Greece,  29  ;  the  He-  '\ 
taira  (secret  society),  31  ;  priests  of  j 
Eletisis,  32  ;  Parga,  33,  34  ;  fate  I 
of  Gregory,  35  ;  revolts,  36  ;  inde-  | 
pendence  proclaimed,  37  ;  massacre  | 


at  Chios,  37  ;  nat.  congress  at  Ar- 
gos,  37  ;  Lord  Byron  takes  part, 
his  death,  37  ;  protocol  signed,  38  ; 
preliminaries  of  battle  at  Navarino, 

39  ;  muster  of  combined  squadron, 

40  ;  comparison  of  superiority,  42  ; 
the  bay  of  Navarino,  42  ;  battle, 
42-45  ;  Turks  evacuate  Greece,  45  ; 
independence  established,  46 

Greencastle,  234 

Gregory,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
35  ;  Patriarch  of  Adrianople,  36 

Grenada,  264 

Grivizza  Heights,  390 

Gros,  Baron,  178 

Guamanga,  12 

Guano  deposits  in  Chili,  431 

Gubat,  475 

Guirgevo,  387 

Gujerat,  117,  124;  the  Sikh  soldiers, 
117  ;  battle  of,  128  ;  Gough,  as 
commander,  129  ;  defeat  of  Sikhs, 
129  ;  surrender  and  terms,  131  ;  the 
Punjaub,  131  ;  success  of  annexa- 
tion,   132 

Gumti  River,  167 

Guns  and  arms  :  flintlock  muskets. 
435  ;  the  Krenk  system,  385  ;  Pea- 
body  rifle,  385  ;  Remington,  435  ; 
cannon,  smooth-bore,  214,  435  ; 
bronze,  brass,  iron,  187,  386  ; 
Krupp,  385,  435  ;  Whitworth, 
430  ;  Armstrong,  430  ;  Dahlgren, 
217,  430  ;  Nordenfeldt,  438  ;  Rod- 
man, 448  ;  Machine  guns.  Gat- 
ling,  438  ;  Gardner,  458  ;  Mitrail- 
leuse, 458  ;  tnountain  pieces,  443 

H 

Habonville,  337 

Hagerstown,  235 

Haines'  Bluff,  264 

Hampton  Roads,  219 

Hanover,  236 

Hankinson's  Ferry,  276 

Hard  Times,  274 

Hariwald,  126 

Harper's  Ferry,  234 

Harrisburg,  234 

Hasheen  Wells,  472 

Hatcher's  Run,  292 

Havelock,   Gen.,    160;   his  march  to 

Cawnpore,    160  ;    entry,    164  ;    his 

death,   166 
Haymarket,  235 


IXDEX. 


483 


Hazar-Asp  fort,  378  ;  gate,  378 

Heidlersburg  Road,  241 

Henning,  329 

Henry,  Cape,  219  ;  fort,  261 

Hetaira,  the,  31 

Hicks  Pasha,  457  ;  arrival  at  Khar- 
toum, 457  ;  reconnoissance,  467  ; 
expedition  against  El  Mahdi,  459  ; 
last  news,  461 

Himalaya  Mountains,  126,  132 

Hindman  Fort,  267 

HIaing,  23 

Hoehnewasser,   309 

Holly  Springs,  264 

Holstein,  308 

Hong  Kong,  178 

Horrmuck,  126 

Horwitz,  310 

Hunterstown,  253 

Hydra  Island,  31 


Ibrahim  Bey,  476 

Igdy  Wells,  421 

Illy  River,  345,  35S 

Imambara  River,  168 

Indus  River,  118 

Inkerman,    136 

Ipsara  Island,  31 

Ipsilanti,  Prince  Alex,  of,  24 

Iquique,  441 

Irrawaddy  River,  19 

Islay,  441 

"  Italia  irridenta,"  209 


Jackson,  276 
James  River,  226,  292 
Jebel  River,  457 
Jerusalem  plank  road,  298 
Jetersville,    301 
Jhelum  River  (Ind.),  118 

K 

Kaisar  Bagh  Palace,  167,  175 

Kalas,  42s 

Kalra,  125 

Kamtjik,  61 

Kara  Kum  Desert,  424 

Kashar,  26 

Kassala,  468 

Kawa,  458 

Kayuk  (boat),  375 


Kazala,  372 

Kazelah  Stream,  125 

Khala-Ata,  372,  373 

Khartoum,  its  foundation,  452  ;  Gor- 
don's entry,  469  ;  in  hands  of  the 
Arabs,  475  ;  fate  of  Khartoum,  476 

Kihitkas  (tents),  425 

Kirghese,  the,  their  location,  country, 
and  characteristics.  415,  416 

Khiva,  location,  366  ;  advance  of, 
Russians,  370  ;  slave-market,  416 

Khodshom-Kala,  423 

Khoree  Pass,  130 

Kinderley  Bay,  36S 

Kizil-Arvat,  421 

Knoxville,  292 

Kokan,  417 

Kommenitz,  310 

Koniggratz  (Sadowa)  the  Prussian  ad- 
vance, 314  ;  battle,  316  ,  check  of 
Pr. ,  319  ;  arrival  of  Crown  Prince, 
320 ;  defeat  of  Austrians,  Treaty 
of    Prague,    323 

Koningenhof,  310 

Kopet-Dag  Hills,  424 

Kordofan,  454 

Korka,  454 

Korniloff  bastion,  146 

Korti,  471 

Kouleflscha,  55 

Kowloon,  196 

Krasnovodsk,  420,  425 

Krishin  heights,  401 

Kuldja,  422 

Kuna-Urgench,  367 

Kungrad,  369,  378 

Kusgan,  52 

Kymyindaing,  20 


La  Chesse,  346 
Lago  Garda,  203 
La  Guayra,  2 
Lahore,  118 
La  Hoya,  98 
La  Rulle,  354 
La  Serna,  Viceroy,  14 
Leesburg,  234 
Leipsic  plateau,  334 
'''Leopard  "  464 
Liebenau,  309 
Liefkenshoek  Fort,  34 
Lieven,  Prince,  38 
Lillo  Fort,  84 
Lima,  7,  9 


484 


INDEX. 


Lincoln  assassinated,  289 

Liniers,  Viceroy,  3 

"Lion"  124 

Lipa,  314 

Loftcha  forts,  399 

Lorn  River,  408 

Lucknow,  mutiny,  163  ;  siege,  164;  re- 
tirement of  British  garrison,  women 
and  children,  165  ;  position  of,  167; 
advance  upon,  by  Sir  Colin  Camp- 
bell, 167  ;  its  fortifications,  168  ; 
Outram's  attack,  170  ;  assault,  173, 
174,  175  ;  capture  and  relief,  175, 
176 

Lurin  Valley,  443 

Lynchburg,  300 


M 


MacAUister  Hills,  254 

Machi  Bawan,  172 

Madiffa  River,  70 

Magenta,  197 

Mahone  Fort,  298 

Mairy,  350 

Malakoff,  siege,  136  ;  account  of 
bombardment,  138-150  ;  list  of  Eng- 
lish and  French  batteries,  143  ;  cap- 
ture, 150  ;  losses  in  war,  151  ;  treaty 
of  Paris,  151 

Malmaison,  328 

Manassas,  232 

Manchester,  243 

Mantua,  203 

Marabieh,  454 

Marie-aux-Chenes,  337 

Marne  River,  328 

Mars-la-Tour,  328 

Martaban,  23 

Martiniere,  la,  167 

Maryland,  233 

Maypu,  plains  of,  7 

McPherson's  wood,  241 

Medola,  201 

Meerut,  155 

Mejillones,  436 

Mendoza,  6 

Memphis,  261 

Mergui,  23 

Merrimac,  the,  iron-clad  steam  frigate, 
212  ;  her  mishap,  212  ;  her  propor- 
tions and  armament,  214  ;  battle 
with  the  Monitor,  219-222  ;  losses, 
222  ;  her  fate,  226 

Metemneh,  464,  471 

Metz,  328 


Meurthe  River,  329 

Meuse  River,  344 

Mexico,  war  with  Texas,  92  ;  war  with 
U.  S.,  94 ;  siege  of  Vera  Cruz,  96  ; 
surrender,  96 ;  camp  of  Contreras 
taken,  lOO ;  fall  of  Casa  Mata  and 
Molino-del-Rey,  108  ;  the  fortress 
of  Chapultepec,  109 ;  assault  and 
capture,  110— 113  ;  advance  on  the 
capital,  114  ;  surrender,  115  ;  treaty 
of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  116 

Mezieres,   346 

Middleburg,  234 

Miletin,  310 

Millerstown  Road,  251 

Milliken's  Bend,  267 

Milowitz,  310 

Mincio  River,  200 

Miraflores,  conditions  of  Peru  and 
Chili,  432  ;  declaration  of  war,  435; 
their  fleets,  436  ;  naval  battle,  436- 
439  ;  land  operations,  440  ;  battle  of 
Miraflores,  447  ;  Miraflores  surren- 
ders to  Chilians,  448  ;  losses,  449 

Mississippi  River,  212,  260 

Missolonghi,  37 

Mixcoac,  102 

Mobile,  290 

Mockrowens,  313 

Modon,  46 

Molino  del  Rey,  its  strength,  102 ; 
storming  of,  104  ;  fall  of,  107 

Molodyetz  (good-fellows,  Russ.),  427 

Moncelle,  344,  350 

Monitor,  the,  iron-clad  turret,  de- 
tailed description,  215  ;  her  pecul- 
iar armament,  217  ;  battle  with  the 
Merrimac ,  224  ;  her  fate,  226 

Monroe  Fort,  219 

Montebello,  97 

Monterey,  114 

Monte  Sacre,  204 

Monteville,  355 

Montichiero,  203 

Montigny-la-Grange,  332,  337 

Moodkee,  121 

Mooltan,  118 

Morales,  Hacienda,  107 

Morro  Solar,  444 

Moscow  plateau  (Metz),  334 

Moselle  River,  329 

Mouzon,  346 

Mummatburg  Road,  241 

Munnipore,  18 

Munchengratz,  309 

Myedee,  24 


INDEX. 


485 


N 


Nancy,  329 

Nankin,  89,  177 

Navarino,  allied  fleet  before,  39  ; 
strength  of  combined  squadron, 
40  ;  description  of  bay,  42  ;  en- 
trance of  the  fleet,  42  ;  their  posi- 
tion and  disposition  of  Turkish  and 
Egyptian  fleet,  42  ;  battle  of,  43  ; 
losses  on  both  sides,  44 

Negrais  Cape,  19 

Nesselrode,  Count,  35,  38 

New  Carthage,  270 

New  Orleans,  260,  262 

Newport  News,  220 

Nicolaieff,  146 

Nicopolis,  389 

Nile  River,  452 

Ningpo,  89 

Nizam,  the,  387 

Novara,  197 

Nubia,  452 

Nueces,  Las,  94 

Number  Ten  Island,  261 


O 


Oak  Hill,  23S  ;  Ridge,  239 

O'Donovan,  Edmund,  462 

Officers,'  generals,  and  others, 
American  :  Confederate.  —  Alexan- 
der, 250  ;  Anderson,  247  ;  Archer, 
239  ;  Armistead,  256  ;  Barksdale, 
249 ;  Beauregard,  291  ;  Benning, 
247  ;  Bowens,  279  ;  Bragg,  240 ; 
Brockenbrough,  247  ;  Chamberlin, 
240 ;  Daniel,  241  ;  Daniels,  253  ; 
Devin,  233  ;  Van  Dorn,  266  ;  Early, 
233  ;  Ewell,  235  ;  Ewing,  298  ; 
Gamble,  233  ;  Gardner,  287  ;  Gar- 
nett,  256  ;  Gordon,  233,  292,  304  ; 
Hampton,  240,  252  ;  Hardee,  291  ; 
Harris,  29S  ;  Hays,  241  ;  Heth, 
233  ;  Hill,  A.  P.,  231  ;  Hoke,  241  ; 
Hood,  248,  2gi  ;  Iverson,  240 ; 
Jenkins,  234  ;  Johnson,  A.  S.,  246  ; 
Johnson,  Bushrod,  297  ;  Johnston, 
Joe,  275,  291  ;  Kemper,  256  ;  Ker- 
shaw, 247  ;  Lane,  245  ;  Law,  246  ; 
Lee,  Fitzhugh,  232-240 ;  Lee,  R. 
E.,  231  ;  Lee,  W.  H.  F.,  232  ; 
Longstreet,  231,  395  ;  Loring,  279  ; 
McLaw,  247  ;  Mahone,  251  ;  Mont- 

*  VVhere  a  name  occurs  many  times  only 
the  first  reference  is  given. 


Officers — Continued. 

gomery.  Col.,  285  ;  Mumford,  233  ; 
Nichols,  252  ;  O'Neil,  240  ;  Petti- 
grew,  233,  246  ;  Pemberton,  261  ; 
Pender,  233;  Pendleton,  304:  Pick- 
ett, 246,  297  ;  Posey,  251  ;  Robert- 
son, 232,  233,  254 ;  Ramseur,  241  ; 
Rodes,  240  ;  Scales,  256  ;  Semmes, 
249  ;  Smith,  247  ;  Stevenson,  279  ; 
Stewart,  252  ;  Stuart,  231  ;  Taylor, 
Dick,  283  ;  Wadsworth,  239  ;  Wil- 
cox, 246  ;  Wilson,  247  ;  Wofford, 
249  ;  Wright,  251 
Union. — Ayres,  246,  295  ;  Banks, 
267  ;  Barlow,  241  ;  Barnes,  249  ; 
Bartlett,  250  ;  Baxter,  240  ;  Biddle, 
240  ;  Biglow,  249  ;  Birney,  243  ; 
Blair,  278  ;  Boomer,  282  ;  Brook, 
249  ;  Buell,  261  ;  Buford,  232  ; 
Burbank,  249  ;  Burbridge,  2S5  ; 
Burling,  250  ;  Butler,  261  ;  Cald- 
well, 246  ;  Candy,  250  ;  Carr,  279  ; 
Carroll,  253  ;  Chamberlain,  Col., 
249  ;   Churchill,  Gen.,  267  ;  Clark, 

249  ;  Crawford,  249,  295  ;  Crocker, 

279  ;  Cross,  249  ;  Gushing,  256  ; 
Custer,  299  ;  Cutler,  240  ;  Davis, 
256,  296  ;  Day,  249  ;  Devin,  296  ; 
Dole,  241  ;  Doubleday,  239  ;  Duf- 
fie.  Col.,  234;  Eustis,  Gen.,  256; 
Famsworth,  254  ;  Geary,  246,  253  ; 
Gibbon,  246  ;  von  Gilsa,  241  ;  Gra- 
ham, 243,  248  ;  Grant,  261  ;  Green, 
251  ;  Gregg,  232,  253  ;  Griffin, 
295  ;  Hall,  256  ;  Halleck,  278  ; 
Hancock,  243  ;  Harrow,  256  ;  Hay, 

250  ;  Herron,  F.  J.,  287  ;  Hazlett, 
248  ;  Hooker,  231  ;  Hovey,  264  ; 
Howe,  232  ;  Howard,  239,  240,  253  ; 
Humphreys,  246,  294  ;  Jones,  252  ; 
Kane,  256  ;  Kelly,  249  ;  Kilpatrick, 
232,  234  ;  Lawler,  281  ;  Lock- 
wood,  250  ;  Logan,  261  ;  Lyon, 
261  ;  McCandless,  249  ;  McCler- 
nand,  267  ;  McGilvery,  250  ;  Mc- 
Kenzie,  297  ;  McPherson,  275  ;  Mc- 
Reynolds,  233  ;  Meade,  232,  294  ; 
Meagher,  249  ;  Meredith,  239  ; 
Merritt,  296  ;  Milroy,  233  ;  Morgan, 
264  ;  Neill,  253  ;  Nevin,  250  ;  Ord, 
299  ;    O'Rorke,     248  ;     Osterhaus, 

280  ;  Perry,  253  ;  Pleasanton,  232  ; 
Pope,  261  ;  Prentiss,  261  ;  Robin- 
son, 239,  253  ;  Rosecrans,  259  ; 
Rowley,  239  ;  Ruger,  254  ;  Schurz, 
240  ;    Schimmelpfennig,  240  ;    Sey- 


486 


INDEX. 


Officers — Continued. 

mour,  Col.,  2g8  ;  Shaler,  Gen.,  253  ; 
Sheridan,  292  ;  Sickles,  243  ;  Slo- 
cum,  246  ;  Smith,  J.  A.,  282  ;  Stan- 
nard,  253  ;  Steele,  278  ;  Von  Stein- 
wehr,  243  ;  Stone,  240  ;  Stoneman, 
292  ;  Sweitzer,  246  ;  Sykes,  246  ; 
Thayer,  266  ;  Tilton,  247  ;  de  Tro- 
briand,  246  ;  Vincent,  Col.,  248  ; 
Ward,  Gen.,  243,  246  ;  Warren,  246, 
294  ;  Washburne,  264  ;  Webb,  251, 
256  ;  Weed,  246  ;  Weitzel,  299  ; 
Willard,  250  ;  Williams,  249,  267  ; 
Wilson,  293  ;  Winslow,  248  ;  Zook, 
249 

In  Mexico.  —  Armstrong,  Capt. , 
108  ;  Chase,  no  ;  Childs,  Col.,  98  ; 
Clarke,  Gen.,  108  ;  Duncan,  Col., 
106  ;  Dunn,  Capt.,  114  ;  Fannin, 
Col.,  92  ;  Garland,  Gen.,  102  ; 
Hooker,  1 10  ;  Howard,  Capt.,  in  ; 
Johnston,  Lt.-Col.,  no  ;  Mcintosh, 
104  ;  McKenzie,  in  ;  Pillow,  98  ; 
Quitman,  gS  ;  Ransom,  Col.,  92  ; 
Rogers,  Lt.,  in  ;  Scott,  Martin, 
Lt.-Col.,  106  ;  Scott,  Winfield,  91  ; 
Selden,  Lt.,  in  ;  Seymour,  Maj., 
113  ;  Smith,  Lt.,  in  ;  Smith,  Per- 
sifer,  99  ;  Sumner,  Alaj.,  107  ; 
Taylor,  Zachary,  94  ;  Travis,  Capt., 
()2  ;  Twiggs,  98  ;  Waite,  Alaj. ,  106  ; 
Worth,  98;  Wright,  JllaJ.,  102 
English.  —  Banks,  Maj.,  164  ; 
Brasyer,  172  ;  Campbell,  Col.,  12S  ; 
Campbell,  Sir  Arch.,  19  ;  Camp- 
bell, Sir  Colin,  165  ;  Clive,  Lord, 
154;  Cotton,  Willoughby,  23; 
Douglas,  Capt.,  128  ;  Dundas,  124  ; 
Earle,  Gen.,  471  ;  Farquhar,  Maj., 
457  ;  Franks,  Brig.-Gen.,  169  ; 
Gilbert,  Capt.,  124  ;  Gordon,  Chas. 
G.,  468  ;  Gough,  Loj-d,  128  ;  Have- 
lock,  Gen.,  160  ;  Hicks,  Col.,  457  ; 
Hope,  172  ;  Inglis,  Maj.,  164  ; 
Malleson,  Col.,  124  ;  Outram,  Sir 
James,  165  ;  Simpson,  Geti.,  146  ; 
Stuart,  Herbert,  471;  Walpole,  170  ; 
Wheeler,  Sir  Hugh,  156  ;  Whish, 
Capt.,  124;  Wilson,  Sir  A.,  169; 
Wilson,  Sir  Charles,  Col.,  475  ; 
Windham,  166  ;  W^olseley,  Lord, 
470;  Wood,  Col.,  169 
French.  —  Auger,  208  ;  Baraguey 
d'Hilliers,  201  ;  Bazaine,  Marshal, 
202,  328  ;  Berthezone,  71  ;  Bour- 
baki,    328  ;     Bourmont,    70  ;    Can- 


Officers — Continued. 

robert.  Marshal,  202,  328  ;  Decaen, 

206  ;  Dieu,  Geit.,  208  ;  Douay,  Fe- 
lix, 208,  327  ;  Ducrot,  350  ;  Failly, 
328  ;  Forey,  204  ;  Frossard,  328  ; 
Gerard,  78  ;  L'Admirault,  20S,  328  •, 
La  Motte-Rouge,  206  ;  L'Artignes, 
355  ;  Lovedo,  71  ;  Luy,  202  ;  ^Iac- 
Mahon,  Marshal,  203,  344  ;  Man- 
eque,  202  ;  Niel,  202  ;  Noel,  206  ; 
Pelissier,   Marshal,    145  ;    Trochu, 

207  ;  Wimpffen,  de,  206,  350 
German. — Crown  Prince  of  Prussia. 
309,  327,  344  ;  Crown  Prince  of 
Saxony,  348  ;  A'^ing  William  of 
Prussia,  313,  327,  349  ;  Prince 
Frederick  Charles,  309,  327  ;  Prince 
Franseky,  312  ;  Herwarth  von  Bit- 
tenfeld,  309  ;  Von  Moltke,  327, 
349  ;  Von  Rhetz,  319  ;  Von  Stein- 
metz,  327  ;  Von  der  Tann,  351  ; 
Zastrow,  337 

Austrian.  —  Archduke     Albrecht, 
309  ;   Benedek,    F.    Marshal,    203, 
309  ;  Stick,  Gen.,  204 
Italian. — Delia      Marmora,       145  ; 
Mollard,   203 

Dutch. — Chasse,  Gen.,  78  ;  Morre, 
Capt.,  83 

Russian.  —  Berg,  37  ;  Diebistch. 
49  ;  Gaidaroff,  427  ;  Gourko,  3S9  ; 
Grand  Duke  Nicholas,  368  ;  Gro- 
dekoff,  421  ;  Imeretinsky,  399  ; 
Kaufmann,  367  ;  Koselkoff,  425  ; 
Krassowsky,  55,  56,  59  ;  Krudener, 
Baron,  389  ;  Kryloff,  400;  Kuro- 
patkin,  422  ;  Lazareff,  294,  422  ; 
Lomakin,  422  ;  Loris  Melikoff, 
430  ;  Markusoff,  368,  421  ;  Pas- 
kievitch,  49  ;  Perovsky,  367  ;  Pe- 
trussovitch,  422  ;  Radetsky,  412  ; 
Ross,  60 ;  Roth,  50 ;  Rudiger, 
61  ;  Samur,  428  ;  Schilder-Schuld- 
ner,  390  ;  Shahofskoy,  Prince,  395  ; 
Skobeleff,  Col.,  379,  393,  421  ; 
Skobeleff,  Gen.,  393;  Stolietoff, 
421  ;  Tergukasoff,  422  ;  Verevkin, 
368  ;  Zimmermann,  388  ;  Zotoff,  399 
Roumania. — Charles,  Ptince,  399 
South  American  and  Mexican. — 
Alvarez,  102  ;  Barragan,  107  ;  Ca- 
ceres,  446  ;  Canterac,  13  ;  Cordova, 
12  ;  Davila,  446  ;  Echeagaraz,  104  ; 
Iglesias,  446  ;  Lagos,  445  ;  La 
Mar,  12  ;  Lara,  12  ;  La  Serna 
( Viceroy)   14.  ;    Liniers,   3  ;   Lynch, 


INDEX. 


487 


Officers — Continued. 

445  ;  Martinez,  Col.,  445  ;  Miller, 
12  ;  Monet,  13  ;  Morales,  96  ; 
Olaneta,  13  ;  Perez,  107  ;  Pierola, 
442  ;  Rincon,  100  ;  Rodel,  15  ; 
Santa  Anna,  92  ;  San  Martin,  6  ; 
Sotomayor,  445  ;  Suarez,  446  ; 
Sucre,  9  ;  Torres,  113  ;  Valdez,  13  ; 
Villalobolos,  13  ;  Valencia,  gg 
Indian. — Bala  Ras,  160  ;  Dhuleep 
Singh,  131  ;  Stirajah  Dowlah,  154  ; 
Nana  Sahib,  158  ;  Runjeet  Singh, 
118  ;  Shere  Singh,  124 
Turkish.  —  Abdul  Kerim  Pasha, 
389  ;  Hussein  Pasha,  58  ;  Ibrahim 
Pasha,  38  ;  Mehemet  Ali,  398  ; 
Mohammed  Pasha,  56  ;  Osman 
Pasha,  390  ;  Redschid  Pasha,  38, 
58  ;  Suleiman  Pasha,  398 
Soudanese. — Abd-el-Kader  Pasha, 
458  ;  Abbas  Pasha,  454  ;  Ala-ed- 
Deen,  456  ;  Arabi  Pasha,  455, 
466;  Baker  Pasha  (Valentine),  470; 
El-Mahdi  (Moh.  Achmet),  454  ; 
Faragh  Pasha,  476  ;  Ibrahim  Bey, 
476  ;  Ismail  Khedive,  452  ;  Ismail 
Pasha,  465  ;  Mek  Nemr,  "the 
Leopard,"  465  ;  Mohammed  Ali 
Pasha,  465  ;  Raouf  Pasha,  455  ; 
Said  Pasha,  354  ;  Suleiman  Nyasi, 
456  ;  Suleiman  Pasha,  459  ; 
Tahier  Bey,  459  ;  Zubair  Pasha, 
469  ;  Yussuf  Pasha,  455 
Burmese. — Maha  Bandula,  18 
Khivan. — Said  Emir  Ul-Umer,  378 
Turcoman  Chiefs. — Tekme  Sarda, 
425  ;  Makdum  Kali,  428 
Algerine.  — Aga  Ibrahim,  69; 
Ahmed,  Bey  of  Constantine,  71  ; 
Beys  of  Oran  and  Tittery,  6g  ; 
Hussein  Pasha,  Dey,  68 

Ohio  River,  260 

Omdurman,  473 

Orenburg,  367,  415,  417 

Ossola,  203 

Oude,  155 

"  Outside  Barbarians,"  I  Si 


1' 


Pacocha,  441 
Pandu  River,  160 
Pardubitz,  320 
Parga,  33 
Pastrenga,  197 
Patras,  Gulf  of,  39 
Pechele,  Gulf  of,  i3o 


Pedregal,  the,  99 

Pegu,  19,  21 

Peiho  River,  description  of  the  estu- 
ary, 180;  reconnoitring  of  the 
forts,  181,  182;  number  of  shijis  in 
foreign  fleet,  182  ;  attack  and  re- 
ply, 184,  185  ;  landing  of  Euro- 
peans, 186  ;  rout  of  Chinese,  1S6  ; 
Chinese  entrenched  camps,  1S7 

Pekin,  194  ;  march  of  England  upon, 
193  ;  their  ])ositions  before,  194 ; 
capture  of  northern  gate,  195  ; 
prepare  to  assault,  ig6 ;  the  ver- 
milion pencil  ratifies  treaty  of  Tien- 
Tsin,  ig6  ;  gains  to  the  British,  ig6 

I'elisat,  3g4 

Perote,  98 

Peschiera  Fortress,  203 

Petersburg,  289,  298 

Pillow  Fort,  262 

Pisagua,  441 

Pisco,  443 

Pittsburg  Landing,  262 

Plappeville,  331 

Plateau  d'  Algerie,  357 

Plevna,  check  of  the  Russians,  389  ; 
attack  of  Grivitza  Heights,  390  ;  re- 
pulse, 392  ;  description  of  defences^ 
394  ;  renewed  assault,  395  ;  failure 
of  third  attack,  397,  398;  Skobeleff's 
grand  assault,  405  ;  Turks,  reduced 
by  starvation,  surrender,  411  ; 
treaty  of  San  Stefano,  412 

Plum  Run,  244 

Podall,  309 

Point  de  Jour,  331 

Polar  Star,  279 

Pont-a-Mousson,  331 

Poolesville,  235 

Porte,  the,  33,  34,  35,  48,  133,  383 

Port  Hudson,  287 

Port  Said,  467 

Porze,  328 

Potomac  River,  233,  234,  290 

Poutiatine,  Count,  180 

Power  Hills,  254 

Pozzolengo,  20I 

Pravadi  Fort,  58 

Pristan,  310 

Prome,  24  ;  Gen.  Campbell's  march 
to,  24  ;  position  of  Burmese,  25  ; 
defeat  of  Shans  and  Burmese,  25  ; 
the  characteristics  of  Burmese  sol- 
diers, 26  ;  the  resulting  events  of  a 
British  defeat  at  Prome  considered, 
27 


488 


INDEX. 


Providence  Lake,  269 
Psauch,  312 
Puebla,  98 
Pugan,  26 
Punjaub,  the,  40 


Quinua,  12 
Quito,  4 


R 


Radischevo,  401 

Radisova,  394 

Rahad,  461 

Rangoon,  ig 

Rappahannock  River,  232 

Rassova,  52 

Ravee  River,  118 

Razghib,  462 

Redan  Fort,  assault  by  English,  148  ; 
description  of  fort,  148,  149  ;  re- 
pulse of  English,  150;  losses,  150 

Rewati,  the,  commander  of  Burmese 
flotilla,  20 

Rezonville,  329 

Richmond,  290  ;  the  advance  of  the 
Army  of  the  Mississippi,  291  ; 
strength  of  both  armies,  292  ;  plan 
of  campaign,  294  ;  Sheridan's  move, 
296,  297  ;  the  outer  defences  of 
Richmond  taken,  298  ;  occupation 
by  Union  troops,  299  ;  Lee  closely 
pushed,  301  ;  state  of  Lee's  army, 
302  ;  terms  of  surrender,  305  ;  ca- 
pitulation, 306 

Rio  del  Norte,  391 

Rio  Grande,  94 

Rivoltella,  201,  203 

Rock  Creek  Stream,  238 

Rockville,  236 

Romilly,  334,  351 

Roncourt,  338 

Round  Top  Hill,  238  ;  Round  Tops, 
246 

Rustchuck,  388 

Ryogos,  45 

S 

Sadowa  (see    Koniggratz),    320 ;    Sa- 

dowa  Wood,  314 
Sailor's  Creek,  301 
St.  Albert,  356  ;  St.   Arnould    Wood, 

331;    St.    Avoid,  328  ;    .St.   Dizier, 

330  ;    St.    Hubert,    331,    337  ;    St. 

Manges,    356  ;    St.    Nicholas,  329  ; 


St.  Quentin  Fort,  331  ;  St.  Privat- 
le-Montagne,  328  ;  St.  Privat,  340— 
location  and  strength,  341 — assault 
of  Prussian  Guards,  341 — the  diffi- 
culties of  storming,  341 — carried  by 
Prussians  and  Saxons,  341 — St. 
Reny,  356 

Salt  Range  Mountains,  132 

Salwan  River,  26 

Samarcand,  417 

Samos,  17 

San  Angelo,  99  ;  San  Antonio,  99  ; 
San  Augustin,  99  ;  San  Cassiano, 
204;  San  Cosme,  114;  San  Ja- 
cinto, 92  ;  San  Juan  (Peru),  445  ; 
San  Juan  d'  Uloa,  94  ;  San  Mar- 
tino  Plateau,  201  ;  San  Stefano, 
treaty  of,  412 

Santa  Teresa,  445  ;  Santa  Fe  de  Bo- 
gota, 4 

Sarakhna,  460 

Sarakhs,  429 

Sarawa,  23 

Savannah,  290 

.Schatt,  459 

Scheldt  River,  78 

Scinde,  89 

Scio,  31 

Sebastopol  (Sacred  City),  133  ;  de- 
scription of  fortifications,  133  ;  as- 
sault (see  Malakoff  and  Redan). 

Sedan  Fortress,  344  ;  movements  of 
French,  344  ;  the  German  plan  of 
attack,  344,  345  ;  location  of  the 
fortress,  345  ;  positions  of  the 
French,  349  ;  battle,  351-362  ; 
losses  on  both  sides,  363 

Seminary  Hill,  238  ;  Seminary  Ridge, 
238 

Sempolatinsk,  417 

Sennaar,  452 

Sewall's  Point,  225 

Shebacat  Wells,  475 

Sheik-arik,  376 

Shenandoah  Valley,  231,  292  ;  .Shen- 
andoah River,  231,  292 

Shendy,  464 

Shiloh,  264 

Shipka  Pass,  399. 

Ships  in  action  : 

American. — Antelope,  182;  Ar- 
kansas, ram,  263  ;  City  of  Vicks- 
bttrg,  269 ;  Congress,  220  ;  Cti»i- 
berland,  220  ;  Merrimac,  214  ; 
Minnesota,  182,  220 ;  Monitor, 
Roatioke,  220  ;    St.  Lawirnce,  220 


INDEX. 


489 


Ships  in  action — Continued. 

Chilian.  —  Almirante    Cochrane, 
434  ;  Blanco  Encalada,  434 
English.  —  Albion,     182  ;     Asia, 

39  ;  Brisk,  Bustard,  Calcutta, 
182  ;  Cambrian,  Cormorant ,  Coro- 
mandel,  182;  Dartmouth,  40;  Fury, 

18  ;  Genoa,  40  ;  Glasgow,  40  ; 
Lame,  Leven,  182  ;  Liffey,  19  ; 
Mosquito,  40  ;  Nintrod,  182  ;  C/(;j-- 
j'ww,  1 82  ;  Philomel,  40  ;  Pigul, 
182  ;  /'^j-(%  40  ;  Sophia,  19  ;  Slaney, 

19  ;  Staunch,  182  ;  Surprise,  182  ; 
Talbot,  40 

French. — Alcyone,  41  ;  Armide, 
Avalanche,  184  ;  Breslau,  40 ; 
Daphne,  40  ;  Dragonne,  182  ; 
Fridens,  40  ;  Fusee,    182  ;  Scipion, 

40  ;  Sirine,  40 

Peruvian. — ^'"^^^■^(//-(turret),  434  ; 
Independencia,  434  ;  0' Higgins, 
436 

Russian. — Alexander,  Asoff,    Cas- 
tor,   Constantine,     Exekiel,     Han- 
houdd,  Helena,  Provounoy,  41 
Turkish. — Capitan  Bey,  Moharem 
Bey,  42 

Ships  and  fleets,  commanders  of  : 
Aguirre,  Admiral,  438  ;  Buchanan, 
Admiral,  214,  220  ;  Codrington, 
Admiral,  39  ;  Duperre,  Admiral, 
69;  Carbajal,  Capt.,  438;  Grant, 
Commodore ,  19  ;  Heiden,  Admiral, 
39  ;  Hope,  Admiral,  igo  ;  Greene, 
S.  D.,  Z/.,  218  ;  Grau,  Admiral, 
436;  Jones,  Catesby,  Z/.,  215; 
Latorre,  Capt .,  6,11  ;  de  Rigny,  ^d'- 
miral,  39  ;  Worden,  John  L.,  Z/. , 
218  ;  comparison  between  iron- 
clads and  wooden  ships,  228  ;  con- 
struction of  floating  batteries,  211  ; 
"  the  wooden  walls,"  210 

Shoay  Dagon  (Golden  Pagoda),  20  ; 
its    occupation  by    Gen.  Campbell, 

20  ;  battle  and  defeat  of  Burmese, 
22 

Siazeray,  330 

Sidi-Ferruch,  69 

Sikander  Bagh,  173 

Silistria,  Fortress,  50;  its  construction, 
50 ;  operations  against,  52  ;  Rus- 
sian mode  of  siege,  54-5(^>  ;  surren- 
der, 57  ;  strength  of  garrison  and 
armament,  57 

Simoritza,  388 

Sinkat,  407 


Sinope,  134 

Slobodka  (Russian,  poor  suburb),  139 

Sobraon    122 

Solferino,  200  ;  position  of  French 
and  Austrians,  200,  20I  ;  battle, 
202,  203  ;  assault,  204  ;  Austrians 
forced  to  retire,  206,  207  ;  the  field 
the  morning  after  battle,  207  ;  loss- 
es, 208  ;  treaty  of  Villafranca,  208 

Sonato,  200 

Soudan,  geography  of,  450  ;  charac- 
teristics of  Soudanese,  453  ;  the 
Mahdi,  454  ;  his  purpose  and  move- 
ments, 455 

Sperryville,  233 

Spicheren,   328 

Staoueli,  69;  marshalling  of  Alg. horse- 
men, 70  ;  their  fighting  qualities 
overweening  confidence  of  Ibrahim 
P.,  70,  71  ;  battle,  71,  72  ;  defeat 
and  losses  ;  72  ;  the  French  march 
on  Algiers,  73 

Steadman  Fort,  292 

Stewart,  Col.,  469 

Stewart,  Gen.  Herbert,  471  ;  marches 
across  the  Bayuda  desert,  472-474 
his  death,  475 

Stockades  (Burmese),  19-23 

Stonne,  246 

Stony  Creek,  295 

Streselitz,  320 

Suakim,  464,  477 

Sumbora  River,  423 

Surajah  Dowlah,  154 

Susquehanna  River,  236 

Sutlej  River,  118 

Syr  Dana  River,  368 

Systevienoi,  the  (Bachelors),  32 


Tacna,  440 
Tacubaya,   112 
Takoo,  181 
Talcahuano,  7 
Tallahatchie  River,  264 
Taneytown,  237 
Tang-Tin-Siang,  182 
Tara  Kothi,  174 
Tarapaca,  432,  446 
Tashkend,   422 
Tavoy,  24 

Tchesme,  Bay  of,  32 
Tchikishlar,  423 
Tebes,  446 
Teheran,  417 


490 


INDEX. 


Tejend  River,  429 

Tekkes,  the,  421  ;  their  kibitkas  and 
strength,  424  ;  their  characteristics, 
424  ;  their  change,  429 

"  Temple  of  the  Earth,"  194 

Tenasserim,  23 

Tennessee,  291 

Texas,  91 

Thionville  Fortress,  328 

Thornton's  Gap,  233 

Ticino  River,  I98 

Tien-Tsin,  treaty  of,  190 

Timby,  Theodore  R.,  227 

Tirnova,  386 

Tocapilla,  432 

Tokar,  470 

Toledo  bastion,  84 

Torpedoes,  387,  438 

Toul,  fortress,  329 

Toulon,  68 

Tra II spa retjt  Blue  Button,  the,  181 

Trautenau,  309 

Tripolitza,  38 

Trostle  House,  250 

Trouville,  333 

Tullohoma,  275 

Tungchow,  191 

Turcomans,  the,  their  numbers,  417  ; 
alamans,  417  ;  their  occupation,  vil- 
lages, national  characteristics,  418  ; 
extent  of  country,  420  ;  Tekke  Tur- 
comans (see  above)  ;  Yomut  Turco- 
mans, 421 

Turkey,  teaching  of  the  faith  of 
Islam,  387  ;  fighting  qualities  of 
Turkish  soldiers,  392  ;  do  not  bury 
the  enemy's  dead,  399 ;  their  ob- 
stinacy, 411  ;  compliments  paid 
by  Russia  on  their  splendid  de- 
fence, 412 

Turkestan,  plain  of,  366 

Turnau,  309 

U      . 
Union,  343 
Upperville,  234 

Ural  Mountains,  365 


Vadelincourt,  346 

Varna  Fortress,  58 

Venloo,  87 

Verdun,  329,  333 

Vermilion    pencil    (Emp.    of    China), 

180 
Verneville,  334 


Versailles,  362 
Vicksburg,  259,  261 
Victoria-Nyanza  Lake,  454 
Vid  River,  389 
Villafranca,  treaty  of,  208 
Villers  Cernay,  356 
Vionville,  328 
Visano,  202 
Vitry,  345 

Vizetelly,  Frank,  462 
Vladimiruko,  Theodore,  34 
Volta,  200,  201 

W 

Walnut  Hills,  281 

Warfield  Ridge,  247,  254 

Warrenton,  232 

Wattington,  25 

Westminister,  243 

White  Oak,  295 

Wilhelmshohe,  362 

Williamsport,  234 

Willoughl:)y  Run  Stream,  238 

Wilmington,    290 

Winchester,  234 

Windham,  General,  166 

Wissenburg,  327 

Woerth,  327 

Wolf's  Hill,  243 

Wolseley,  Lord,  his  mission  to  Egypt, 

464  ;    appointed  commander,  470  ; 

arrival  at  Cairo,  471  ;  at  Korti,  471 
"  Wooden  walls,"  the,  210 

X 

Xochimilco  Lake,  98 

Y 
Yandabo,  26 
Yanghi-Kala  River,  425 
Yantra  River,  389 
Yazoo  City,  261 
Yazoo  River,  261 
Yellow  Sea,  180 
Yeni  Zagra,  398 
Yermak,  Cossack  chief,  365 
Ylo,  441 

Young's  Point,  261 
Yuen-Min-Yuen,  173 
Yuh,  Prime-Minister,  180 
Yussuf  Pasha,  456 

Z 

Zareba,  473,  475 
Zeigler's  grove,  244 
Zeraig,  460 
Zubair  Pasha,  469 


MILITARY   HISTORY. 


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